Krishna

== Philosophy and theology ==
[[File:12th-century Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings lost in music at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|12th-century art depicting Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings at [[Hoysaleswara Temple|Hoysaleswara temple]], Karnataka]]

A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' can be considered, according to [[Friedhelm Hardy]], as the first Krishnaite system of theology.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}

[[Ramanuja]], a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in [[Bhakti movement]],<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref> presented him in terms of qualified [[monism]], or [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]] (namely [[Vishishtadvaita]] school).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=329–334 (Francis X Clooney)}} [[Madhvacharya]], a philosopher whose works led to the founding of [[Haridasa]] tradition of Vaishnavism,<ref name="SharmaB">{{cite book|author1=Sharma|author2=B. N. Krishnamurti|title=A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120815759|pages=514–516}}</ref> presented Krishna in the framework of [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] ([[Dvaita]]).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=358–365 (Deepak Sarma)}} [[Bhedabheda]]{{snd}}a group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate reality{{snd}}predates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are [[Nimbarkacharya]], who founded the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Kumara Sampradaya]] (Dvaitadvaita philosophical school),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} and [[Jiva Goswami]], a saint from [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava school]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Tripurari |first=Swami |title=The Life of Sri Jiva Goswami |url=http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |work=Harmonist |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324101939/http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |archive-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref> who described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=373–378 (Satyanarayana Dasa)}} Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (''[[Shuddhadvaita]]'') framework by [[Vallabha Acharya]], the founder of [[Pushtimarg|Pushti]] sect of Vaishnavism.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=175zjT9bStcC&q=nathdwara | title=Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara | publisher=Popular Prakashan | author=Jindel, Rajendra | year=1976 | pages=34, 37 | isbn=978-8171540402}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–480 (Richard Barz)}} Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher,<ref name="David_1996">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156 |title=Contesting the Nation |editor=David Ludden |chapter=Soldier Monks and Militant Sadhus |author=William R. Pinch |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8122-1585-4 |pages=148–150 }}</ref> presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework ([[Advaita Vedanta]]), while [[Adi Shankara]], credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in [[Hinduism]],<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), ''Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora'', {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.";<br />David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), ''The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref> mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on [[Panchayatana puja]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=313–318 (Lance Nelson)}}

The ''Bhagavata Purana'' synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna, but it does so through loving devotion to Krishna.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pages=553–557}} Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as:

{{Blockquote|The philosophy of the Bhagavata is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics, and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead&nbsp;– the personality behind the term [[Ishvara]] and the ultimate aspect of [[Brahman]].|Edwin Bryant|''Krishna: A Sourcebook''{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=114}}}}

While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the Bhagavata is [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualist]] with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and plural.<ref>Tracy Pintchman (1994), ''The rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pp. 132–134</ref>{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pages=17–21}}

Across the various theologies and philosophies, the common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=10, 170}}</ref> as well as his later dialogues with other figures, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity Krishna: Hindu Deity], Encyclopædia Britannica (2015)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|pages=210–215}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Vaudeville | first=Ch. | title=Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=31–40 | year=1962 | doi=10.2307/595976 | jstor=595976}}</ref> Krishna's ''lila'' is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|page=210}}</ref>

Other texts that include Krishna such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' have attracted numerous ''[[bhasya]]'' (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.<ref name=Juanxxvi /> Though only a part of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'', it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life through Krishna and Arjuna. It then presents a spectrum of answers, addressing the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and others.<ref name=Juanxxvi /><ref name=feuersteinix /> This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor for inner human struggle that teaches non-violence to being a metaphor for outer human struggle that advocates a rejection of quietism and persecution.<ref name=Juanxxvi>{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC |year=1962|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044918-1|pages=xxvi–xxviii}}</ref><ref name=feuersteinix>{{cite book|author1=Georg Feuerstein|author2=Brenda Feuerstein|title=The Bhagavad-Gita: A New Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC |year=2011| publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-1-59030-893-6|pages=ix–xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas F. Gier|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA36| year=2004| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=36–40}}</ref>

[[Madhusūdana Sarasvatī|Madhusudana Sarasvati]], known for his contributions to classical Advaita Vedanta, was also a devout follower of Krishna and expressed his devotion in various verses within his works,notably in his Bhagavad Gita commentary, Bhagavad Gita Gudarthadipika. In his works, Krishna is often interpreted as representing nirguna Brahman, leading to a transtheistic understanding of deity, where Krishna symbolizes the nondual Self, embodying Being, Consciousness, and Bliss, and the pure Existence underlying all.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=315}}