Hinduism

== Beliefs ==
[[File:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the [[Hoysaleswara Temple]] in [[Halebidu]], representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]]]
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) [[Dharma]] (ethics/duties), [[samsara|{{IAST|saṃsāra}}]] (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in an [[Afterlife]], with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as [[Śrāddha]]. [[Ancestor worship]] once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.<ref name="A.M. Boyer 1901">A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–453, 459–468</ref><ref name="Yuvraj Krishan 1997">Yuvraj Krishan: ''Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan'', 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref><ref name="Laumakis">{{Cite book |last=Laumakis |first=Stephen J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC |title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46966-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155520/https://books.google.co.ma/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hayakawa 2014">{{Cite book |last=Hayakawa |first=Atsushi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7LtAgAAQBAJ |title=Circulation of Fire in the Veda |date=2014 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90472-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sayers">{{Cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in Ancient India |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="repositories.lib.utexas.edu">{{Cite thesis |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |date=May 2008 |degree=Thesis |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sayers 182–197">{{Cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=June 2015 |title=The Śrāddha : The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism: The Śrāddha |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=182–197 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12155 |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119210615/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Purusharthas ===
{{Main|Puruṣārtha}}
{{See also|Diksha|l1=Diksha|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}}
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kama]] and [[Moksha]].<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103" />{{sfn|Flood|1997|p=11}}

==== Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics) ====
{{Main|Dharma}}
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring |year=1996a |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor-last=Lipner |editor-first=Julius |pages=16–21 |chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas |publisher=Bayeux |author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with [[rta]], the order that makes life and universe possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 "Dharma"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926234045/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 |date=26 September 2016 }}, The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 |edition=6th |chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce /> Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal |last=Van Buitenen |first=J. A. B. |date=April–July 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.2307/1396832 |jstor=1396832}}</ref> The [[Brihadaranyaka|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] states it as:

{{blockquote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv<ref>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Charles Johnston]], The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), "From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol 32, pp. 423–448, (2004)</ref>}}

In the [[Mahabharata]], [[Krishna]] defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Prabhupādā |first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither%20beginning%20nor%20end%22&pg=PA16 |title=Bhagavad-gītā as it is |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-89213-268-3 |page=16 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174159/https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither+beginning+nor+end%22&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life) ====
{{Main|Artha}}
Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.{{sfn|Koller|1968}} The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=55–56}}<ref name="bruces">Bruce Sullivan (1997), ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-8108-3327-2}}, pp. 29–30</ref>

A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.<ref>John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), pp. 315–319</ref>

==== Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure) ====
{{Main|Kama}}
Kāma (Sanskrit, [[Pali]]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the [[senses]], the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Macy |first=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.2307/3269765 |jstor=3269765}}</ref><ref name="mmwse">Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html काम, kāma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211540/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html |date=19 October 2017 }} ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary'', p. 271, see 3rd column</ref>

In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|Epic]] the [[Mahabharata]] describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).<ref>R. Prasad (2008), ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Volume 12, Part 1, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, Chapter 10, particularly pp. 252–255</ref>

In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.<ref>See:
* "The Hindu Kama Shastra Society" (1925), ''[https://archive.org/stream/kamasutraofvatsy00vatsuoft#page/8/mode/2up The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana]'', University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
* A. Sharma (1982), ''The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology'', Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp. 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (July 1984), pp. 140–142;
* A. Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 "The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174154/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 |date=29 December 2020 }}, ''The Journal of Religious Ethics'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
* Chris Bartley (2001), ''Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'', Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, p. 443</ref>

==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering) ====
{{Main|Moksha}}
Moksha ({{Lang-sa|मोक्ष|translit=mokṣa}}) or mukti ({{Lang-sa|मुक्ति|links=no}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from [[samsara]] (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Long|first=J. Bruce|title=The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata|publisher=University of California Press|year=1980|isbn=978-0-520-03923-0|editor-last=O'Flaherty|editor-first=Wendy D.|chapter=2 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions}}</ref>

Due to the belief in Hinduism that the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is eternal, and the concept of [[Purusha]] (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness),<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Far East and Australasia, 2003 – Regional surveys of the world |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85743-133-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |page=39 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174155/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref> death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |title=Hindu spirituality – Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia |publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |page=1 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229001010/https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Differing views on the nature of moksha =====
The meaning of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.

[[Advaita Vedanta]] holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to [[Brahman]].<ref name=karlpotter /><ref name=klausklost />

The followers of [[Dvaita]] (dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in a [[loka]] (heaven).{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter">{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Karl H.|date=1958|title=Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=8|issue=1/2|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1397421|jstor=1397421|issn=0031-8221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ingalls|first=Daniel H. H.|date=1957d|title=Dharma and Moksha|url=https://cup.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Philosophies-of-Happiness-Supplementary-Notes.pdf|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=2|pages=41–48|doi=10.2307/1396833|jstor=1396833}}{{dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="danielingails">{{Cite book|last=Pal|first=Jagat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|title=Karma, Dharma and Moksha: Conceptual Essays on Indian Ethics|date=2004|publisher=Abhijeet Publications|isbn=978-81-88683-23-9|language=en|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164240/https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="klausklost">{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|title=Philosophy East & West|date=1985|publisher=[[University Press of Hawaii]]|pages=61–71|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter" /><ref name="danielingails" /> ''Moksha'' when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests [[Klaus Klostermaier]],<ref name="klausklost" /> implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.<ref name="klausklost" />

Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the [[vedanta|Vedantic school]] separates this into two views – ''[[jivanmukta|Jivanmukti]]'' (liberation in this life) and ''[[videha mukti|Videhamukti]]'' (liberation after death).<ref name="klausklost" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Brück |first=M. |year=1986 |title=Imitation or Identification? |journal=Indian Theological Studies |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=95–105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fort|first=Andrew O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation|title=Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta|date=1998|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-7914-3904-3|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164245/https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation#v=snippet&q=Jivanmukti%20in%20Transformation&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Karma and saṃsāra ===
{{Main|Karma}}
''Karma'' translates literally as ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman S |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsenglishs00apte_271 |title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-0300-8 |edition=New |location=Delhi}}</ref> and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |year=1991 |title=The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-06-250799-0 |page=64 |author-link=Huston Smith |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsreligions000smit}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (April 1964), pp. 39–49</ref> The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.<ref name="wdointro">Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37</ref> Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.<ref name=wdointro /><ref>Karl Potter (1980), in ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'' (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. 241–267</ref> This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called ''[[saṃsāra]]''. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting [[Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)|happiness]] and [[Peace#Hinduism|peace]].{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |title=Jnana Yoga |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4254-8288-6 |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |pages=301–302}} (8th Printing 1993)</ref> Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher Key|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity|title=Karma and Creativity|date=1986|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-250-6|pages=60–64|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity#v=snippet&q=Karma%20and%20Creativity&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The idea of [[reincarnation]], or [[saṃsāra]], is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyer |first=A. M. |year=1901 |title=Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=451–453, 459–468}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |title=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1997 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref> The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.{{sfn|Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ranade |first=R. D. |url=https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n181/mode/2up |title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1926 |pages=147–148 |quote=...&nbsp;in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.}}</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |pages=1–9 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first=Matthew Rae |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |page=12 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=1 November 2015 |editor-last=McGovern |editor-first=Nathan |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=336–338 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hiv034 |issn=1756-4255 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204170604/https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |url-status=live }}</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the [[Upanishads]] of the late [[Vedic period]], predating the [[Buddha]] and the [[Mahavira]].<ref name="damienkeown32">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |title=Buddhism: A very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966383-5 |pages=28, 32–38 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164154/https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}

=== Concept of God ===
{{Main|Ishvara|God in Hinduism}}

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs<!--systems listed at 'Definitions' above-->;<ref name="Lipner2009p8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=Sitansu |title=Hinduism, a way of life |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0899-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |page=71 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Smart |first=Ninian |year=2007 |title=Polytheism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |access-date=5 July 2007 |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040843/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism |url-status=live }}</ref> its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]] followed. It is sometimes referred to as [[God in Hinduism|henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gill |first=N.S |title=Henotheism |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-date=17 March 2007 |access-date=5 July 2007 |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]]}}</ref>

{{Rquote|left|"Who really knows?<br />Who will here proclaim it? <br />Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?<br />The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.<br />Who then knows whence it has arisen?"|[[Nasadiya Sukta]], concerns the [[origin of the universe]], [[Rigveda]], ''10:129–6''{{sfn|Kramer|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34 34–]}}{{sfn|Christian|2011|pp=[https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n46 18–]}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206 206–]}}}}
The ''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]'' (''Creation Hymn'') of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the earliest texts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=226}} which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref name="3translations">* Original Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF |date=25 May 2017 }} Wikisource;
* '''Translation 1''': {{harvnb|Muller|1859|pp=559–565}}
* '''Translation 2''': {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|p=[https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21 21]}}
* '''Translation 3''': {{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA17 17]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18 18]}}</ref> The ''Rig Veda'' praises various [[Hindu deities|deities]], none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muller |first=Max |author-link=Max Muller |year=1878 |title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India |publisher=Longmans Green & Co |pages=260–271}}<br />{{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=William Joseph |year=1882 |title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic |publisher=London Missionary Society |location=Calcutta |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8 |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164250/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The hymns repeatedly refer to [[Brahman|One Truth and One Ultimate Reality]]. The "One Truth" of [[Vedas|Vedic literature]], in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raghavendrachar |first=H.N. |year=1944 |title=Monism in the Vedas |journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University |department=Section A – Arts |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=137–152 |url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2015}}<br />{{cite journal |last=Werner |first=K. |year=1982 |title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575 |s2cid=163754819 }}<br />{{cite journal |last=Coward |first=H. |year=1995 |department=Book Review |title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas |journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–47 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116 |quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| caption_align     = center
| total_width       = 300
| perrow            = 2
| title             = [[Hindu deities|Gods and Goddesses]] in Hinduism
| image1            = Vishnu Avatars.jpg
| alt1              = Vishnu
| caption1          = [[Vishnu]]
| image2            = Brahma on hamsa.jpg
| alt2              = Brahma
| caption2          = [[Brahma]]
| image3            = MurudeshwarStatue.JPG
| alt3              = Shiva
| caption3          = [[Shiva]]
| image4            = Durga idol 2011 Burdwan.jpg
| alt4              = Shakti
| caption4          = [[Shakti]]
}}

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]''. The Self is believed to be eternal.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}} According to the monistic/pantheistic ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualist]]) theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita Vedanta school]]), this [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit or [[Ultimate reality|the Ultimate Reality]].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita school]], is to realise that [[Jiva|one's Self]] is identical to [[Paramatman|supreme Self]], that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pp. 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|Dualistic]] schools ([[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) understand [[Brahman]] as a Supreme Being separate from [[Ātman (Hinduism)|individual Selfs]].<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), ..A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals'', Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pp. 345–347</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'', ''[[Bhagavan]]'', ''[[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshwara]]'', ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.{{sfn|Eliade|2009|pp=73–76}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=37–39, 401–403, 498–503}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berntsen |first=Maxine |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell |title=The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-662-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell/page/n45 18]–19 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n301/mode/2up Taittiriya Upanishad] Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pp. 281–282;<br />Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 229–231</ref> It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the [[Vedas|Vedic]] foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from [[animism]], in which all things are themselves divine.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, [[man and nature]], etc. The [[Vedas|Vedic]] view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.<ref name="Wallin1999p64">{{Cite book |last1=Buttimer |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |title=Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective |last2=Wallin |first2=L. |publisher=Springer |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7923-5651-6 |pages=64–68 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162533/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mabry |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |title=Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance |publisher=New York: Morehouse |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8192-2238-1 |pages=32–33 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160602/https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Samovar |first1=Larry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |title=Communication Between Cultures |last2=Porter |first2=Richard E. |last3=McDaniel |first3=Edwin R. |publisher=Cengage |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-88806-7 |pages=140–144 |display-authors=etal |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] name celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''{{IAST|[[Devi]]}}'' in feminine form), which may be translated into English as ''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, [[Hindu architecture|architecture]] and through [[Hindu iconography|icons]], and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the [[Puranas]]. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping [[Ishvara]] in one of its particular manifestations as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=9, 15, 49, 54, 86}}{{sfn|Renou|1964|p=55}} The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name="harman1">{{harvnb|Harman|2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1 />{{refn|group=note|Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevis]]'' or ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevata]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harlan |first=Lindsey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07339-5 |pages=19–20, 48 with footnotes |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The multitude of Devas are considered manifestations of Brahman.<ref name=avatars>* {{harvnb|Hark|DeLisser|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "Three gods or [[Trimurti]], [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]], and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of [[Brahman]]."
* {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
* {{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."</ref>

[[File:Vishnu Surrounded by his Avatars.jpg|thumb|Hindu god [[Vishnu]] (centre) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara|ten major avatars]], namely [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]], and [[Kalki]]]]
The word ''[[avatar]]'' does not appear in the [[Vedas|Vedic literature]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bassuk |first=Daniel E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=2–4 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160747/https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> but appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978 |isbn=978-3-447-04860-6 |editor-last=Schmithausen |editor-first=Lambert |pages=424, also 405–409, 414–417 |language=de}}</ref> Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the ''avatars'' of Hindu god [[Vishnu]], though the idea has been applied to other deities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |edition=Second |volume=2 |pages=707–708}}</ref> Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten [[Dashavatara]] of the ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and the twenty-two avatars in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18}} The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based [[Shaktism|Shaktism tradition]], avatars of the [[Devi]] are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same [[Brahman|metaphysical Brahman]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDaniel |first=June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC&pg=PA90 |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |pages=90–91}}</ref> and [[Shakti]] ''(energy)''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |title=The life of Hinduism |last2=Narayanan |first2=Vasudha |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24914-1 |page=174 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174125/https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1522-3 |pages=115–119 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160534/https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |url-status=live }}</ref> While avatars of other deities such as [[Ganesha]] and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.<ref>"Shiva" in {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002n|p=635}}</ref>

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early [[Nyaya]] school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,<ref>John Clayton (2010), ''Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref> but later [[Nyaya]] school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.<ref>Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0365-7}}, pp. 209–210</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichenbach |first=Bruce R. |date=April 1989 |title=Karma, causation, and divine intervention |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 [145] |doi=10.2307/1399374 |jstor=1399374 |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |access-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027070413/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |archive-date=27 October 2009}}</ref> Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. [[Samkhya]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajadhyaksha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |title=The six systems of Indian philosophy |year=1959 |page=95 |quote=Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mimamsa<ref name=Coward2008p114>{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref> and [[Carvaka]] schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".<ref group="web">[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft_djvu.txt Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra] I.92.</ref>{{sfn|Sen Gupta|1986|p=viii}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neville |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |title=Religious truth |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9 |page=51 |publisher=SUNY Press |quote=Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |url-status=live }}</ref> Its [[Vaisheshika]] school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.<ref>A Goel (1984), ''Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science'', Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pp. 149–151</ref><ref>Collins, Randall (2000), ''The sociology of philosophies'', Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, p. 836</ref>{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=337–338}} The [[Raja yoga|Yoga]] school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-64887-5 |pages=39–41 |author-link=Mikel Burley}};<br />{{Cite book |last=Pflueger |first=Lloyd |title=Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3232-9 |editor-last=Knut Jacobsen |pages=38–39}};<br />{{Cite book |last=Behanan |first=K. T. |title=Yoga: Its Scientific Basis |publisher=Dover |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-486-41792-9 |pages=56–58 |author-link1=K. T. Behanan}}</ref> Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), ''Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pp. 77–78</ref> Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347" />

[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|[[Ardhanarishvara]], showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in Hinduism]]
God in Hinduism is often represented having both the [[God and gender in Hinduism|feminine and masculine]] aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati ([[Ardhanarishvara]]), [[Vishnu]] accompanied by Lakshmi, [[Radha]] with [[Krishna]] and [[Sita]] with [[Rama]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rankin|first=John|date=1 June 1984|title=Teaching Hinduism: Some Key Ideas|journal=British Journal of Religious Education|volume=6|issue=3|pages=133–160|doi=10.1080/0141620840060306|issn=0141-6200}}</ref>

According to [[Graham Schweig]], Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=441}} The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric [[Shaivism|Saiva traditions]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=200–203}}

=== Authority ===
{{Anchor|Questioning authority}}
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.<ref name="frazier1415">{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/14 14]–15, 321–325 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.<ref name=frazier1415 /> But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."<ref name=frazier1415 /> Narratives in the [[Upanishads]] present characters questioning persons of authority.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Kena Upanishad]] repeatedly asks ''kena'', 'by what' power something is the case.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Katha Upanishad]] and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.<ref name=frazier1415 /> In the [[Shiva Purana]], Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.<ref name=frazier1415 /> Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.<ref name=frazier1415 /> [[Jayadeva]]'s [[Gita Govinda]] presents criticism via [[Radha]].<ref name=frazier1415 />
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