Evolution Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Applications == {{main|Applications of evolution|Selective breeding|Evolutionary computation}} Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.<ref name="Bull">{{cite journal |last1=Bull |first1=James J. |author-link1=James J. Bull |last2=Wichman |first2=Holly A. |date=November 2001 |title=Applied evolution |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=32 |pages=183–217 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114020 |issn=1545-2069}}</ref> Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the [[domestication]] of plants and animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doebley |first1=John F. |last2=Gaut |first2=Brandon S. |last3=Smith |first3=Bruce D. |author-link3=Bruce D. Smith |date=29 December 2006 |title=The Molecular Genetics of Crop Domestication |journal=Cell |volume=127 |issue=7 |pages=1309–1321 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.12.006 |issn=0092-8674 |pmid=17190597|s2cid=278993 |doi-access=free }}</ref> More recently, such selection has become a vital part of [[genetic engineering]], with [[selectable marker]]s such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new [[antibody|antibodies]]) in a process called [[directed evolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jäckel |first1=Christian |last2=Kast |first2=Peter |last3=Hilvert |first3=Donald |date=June 2008 |title=Protein Design by Directed Evolution |journal=[[Annual Review of Biophysics]] |volume=37 |pages=153–173 |doi=10.1146/annurev.biophys.37.032807.125832 |issn=1936-122X |pmid=18573077}}</ref> Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human [[genetic disorder]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maher |first=Brendan |s2cid=41648315 |date=8 April 2009 |title=Evolution: Biology's next top model? |journal=Nature |volume=458 |issue=7239 |pages=695–698 |doi=10.1038/458695a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19360058|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, the [[Mexican tetra]] is an [[albino]] cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Borowsky |first=Richard |s2cid=16967690 |date=8 January 2008 |title=Restoring sight in blind cavefish |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R23–R24 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.023 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=18177707|doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18..R23B }}</ref> This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gross |first1=Joshua B. |last2=Borowsky |first2=Richard |last3=Tabin |first3=Clifford J. |date=2 January 2009 |editor1-last=Barsh |editor1-first=Gregory S. |title=A novel role for ''Mc1r'' in the parallel evolution of depigmentation in independent populations of the cavefish ''Astyanax mexicanus'' |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=e1000326 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000326 |issn=1553-7390 |pmc=2603666 |pmid=19119422 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Evolutionary theory has many [[Evolutionary therapy|applications in medicine]]. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to [[pharmaceutical drug]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merlo |first1=Lauren M.F. |last2=Pepper |first2=John W. |last3=Reid |first3=Brian J. |last4=Maley |first4=Carlo C. |author-link4=Carlo Maley |date=December 2006 |title=Cancer as an evolutionary and ecological process |journal=[[Nature Reviews Cancer]] |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=924–935 |doi=10.1038/nrc2013 |issn=1474-175X |pmid=17109012|s2cid=8040576 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Dabo |author2=Weiwei Xue |author3=Wenqi Zhang |author4=Huanxiang Liu |author5=Xiaojun Yao |date=October 2012 |title=Understanding the drug resistance mechanism of hepatitis C virus NS3/4A to ITMN-191 due to R155K, A156V, D168A/E mutations: a computational study |journal=[[Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects]] |volume=1820 |issue=10 |pages=1526–1534 |doi=10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.06.001 |issn=0304-4165 |pmid=22698669 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woodford |first1=Neil |last2=Ellington |first2=Matthew J. |date=January 2007 |title=The emergence of antibiotic resistance by mutation. |journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5–18 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01492.x |issn=1198-743X |pmid=17184282|doi-access=free }}</ref> These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Labbé |first1=Pierrick |last2=Berticat |first2=Claire |last3=Berthomieu |first3=Arnaud |last4=Unal |first4=Sandra |last5=Bernard |first5=Clothilde |last6=Weill |first6=Mylène |last7=Lenormand |first7=Thomas |date=16 November 2007 |title=Forty Years of Erratic Insecticide Resistance Evolution in the Mosquito ''Culex pipiens'' |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=3 |issue=11 |page=e205 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0030205 |issn=1553-7390 |pmid=18020711 |display-authors=3 |pmc=2077897 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[herbicide]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neve |first=Paul |date=October 2007 |title=Challenges for herbicide resistance evolution and management: 50 years after Harper |journal=Weed Research |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=365–369 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00581.x |issn=0043-1737|doi-access= |bibcode=2007WeedR..47..365N }}</ref> resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-Rojas |first1=Alexandro |last2=Rodríguez-Beltrán |first2=Jerónimo |last3=Couce |first3=Alejandro |last4=Blázquez |first4=Jesús |date=August 2013 |title=Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance: A bitter fight against evolution |journal=[[International Journal of Medical Microbiology]] |volume=303 |issue=6–7 |pages=293–297 |doi=10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.02.004 |issn=1438-4221 |pmid=23517688 }}</ref> and predicting the evolution and evolvability<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schenk |first1=Martijn F. |last2=Szendro |first2=Ivan G. |last3=Krug |first3=Joachim |last4=de Visser |first4=J. Arjan G.M. |date=28 June 2012 |title=Quantifying the Adaptive Potential of an Antibiotic Resistance Enzyme |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=8 |issue=6 |page=e1002783 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1002783 |issn=1553-7390 |pmid=22761587 |pmc=3386231 |doi-access=free }}</ref> of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Read |first1=Andrew F. |last2=Lynch |first2=Penelope A. |last3=Thomas |first3=Matthew B. |date=7 April 2009 |title=How to Make Evolution-Proof Insecticides for Malaria Control |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=e1000058 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000058 |pmid=19355786 |pmc=3279047 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In [[computer science]], simulations of evolution using [[evolutionary algorithm]]s and [[artificial life]] started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Alex S. |s2cid=4211563 |author-link=Alex Fraser (scientist) |date=18 January 1958 |title=Monte Carlo Analyses of Genetic Models |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1958-01-18_181_4603/page/208 |journal=Nature |volume=181 |issue=4603 |pages=208–209 |bibcode=1958Natur.181..208F |doi=10.1038/181208a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=13504138}}</ref> Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of [[Ingo Rechenberg]] in the 1960s. He used [[evolution strategies]] to solve complex engineering problems.<ref>{{harvnb|Rechenberg|1973}}</ref> [[Genetic algorithm]]s in particular became popular through the writing of [[John Henry Holland]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holland|1975}}</ref> Practical applications also include [[genetic programming|automatic evolution of computer programmes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Koza|1992}}</ref> Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jamshidi |first=Mo |s2cid=34259612 |date=15 August 2003 |title=Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A]] |volume=361 |issue=1809 |pages=1781–1808 |bibcode=2003RSPTA.361.1781J |doi=10.1098/rsta.2003.1225 |pmid=12952685}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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