Ancient Greece

==Culture==
===Philosophy===
{{Main|Ancient Greek philosophy}}
[[File:British Museum - Four Greek philosophers.jpg|thumb|left|The carved busts of four ancient Greek philosophers, on display in the British Museum. From left to right: [[Socrates]], [[Antisthenes]], [[Chrysippus]], and [[Epicurus]].]]

Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of [[reason]] and [[inquiry]]. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern [[philosophy]], as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic philosophers]], to medieval [[Early Islamic philosophy|Muslim philosophers]] and [[Islamic science|Islamic scientists]], to the European [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], to the secular sciences of the modern day.

Neither reason nor inquiry began with the ancient Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the [[ancient Egypt]]ians and [[Babylonia]]ns, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization.

The first known philosophers of Greece were the [[pre-Socratic]]s, who attempted to provide naturalistic, non-mythical descriptions of the world. They were followed by [[Socrates]], one of the first philosophers based in Athens during [[fifth-century Athens|its golden age]] whose ideas, despite being known by second-hand accounts instead of writings of his own, laid the basis of Western philosophy. Socrates' disciple [[Plato]], who wrote ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' and established a radical difference between ideas and the concrete world, and Plato's disciple [[Aristotle]], who wrote extensively about nature and ethics, are also immensely influential in Western philosophy to this day. The later [[Hellenistic philosophy]], also originating in Greece, is defined by names such as [[Antisthenes]] ([[cynicism (philosophy)|cynicism]]), [[Zeno of Citium]] ([[stoicism]]) and [[Plotinus]] ([[Neoplatonism]]).

===Literature and theatre===
{{Main|Ancient Greek literature|Ancient Greek comedy|Theatre of ancient Greece}}
[[File:The great theater of Epidaurus, designed by Polykleitos the Younger in the 4th century BC, Sanctuary of Asklepeios at Epidaurus, Greece (14015010416).jpg|thumb|left|The [[ancient Theatre of Epidaurus]], 4th century BC]]

The earliest Greek literature was poetry and was composed for performance rather than private consumption.<ref>{{harvnb|Power|2016|p=58}}</ref> The earliest Greek poet known is [[Homer]], although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirk|1985|p=44}}</ref> Homer's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was [[Archilochus]], a [[Greek lyric|lyric poet]] from the mid-seventh century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirk|1985|p=45}}</ref> [[Greek tragedy|Tragedy]] developed around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry.<ref>{{harvnb|Power|2016|p=60}}</ref> Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop—the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the [[City Dionysia]] in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is [[Aristophanes]]' ''[[Acharnians]]'', produced in 425.<ref>{{harvnb|Handley|1985|p=355}}</ref>

[[File:Hypnos Thanatos BM Vase D56 full.jpg|thumb|upright|A scene from the ''[[Iliad]]'': [[Hypnos]] and [[Thanatos]] carrying the body of [[Sarpedon (Trojan War hero)|Sarpedon]] from the battlefield of [[Troy]]; detail from an Attic [[white-ground]] [[lekythos]], {{circa|440 BC}}]]

Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC.<ref name="mcglew79">{{harvnb|McGlew|2016|p=79}}</ref> Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the [[presocratic]] philosophers [[Anaximander]] and [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]]—though [[Thales of Miletus]], considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing.<ref>{{harvnb|McGlew|2016|p=81}}</ref> Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era,<ref name="mcglew79" /> and the major Greek prose genres—philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue—developed in this period.<ref>{{harvnb|McGlew|2016|p=84}}</ref>

The Hellenistic period saw the literary centre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the [[Antigonids]] and the [[Attalids]] were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning [[Pella]] and [[Pergamon]] respectively into cultural centres.<ref>{{harvnb|Mori|2016|p=93}}</ref> It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, that so much ancient Greek literature has survived.<ref name="bulloch542">{{harvnb|Bulloch|1985|p=542}}</ref> The [[Library of Alexandria]], part of the Museum, had the previously unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry,<ref name="bulloch542" /> and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual,<ref>{{harvnb|Bulloch|1985|pp=542–43}}</ref> blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives.<ref>{{harvnb|Mori|2016|p=99}}</ref> The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed—while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately.<ref>{{harvnb|Mori|2016|p=98}}</ref> At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulloch|1985|p=543}}</ref>

With Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as [[Strabo]] and [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] came to Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowersock|1985|pp=642–43}}</ref> The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century" from approximately 80&nbsp;AD to around 230&nbsp;AD.<ref name="konig113">{{harvnb|König|2016|p=113}}</ref> This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period.<ref name="konig113" />

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of ancient Greece}}
In Ancient Greek society, music was ever-present and considered a fundamental component of civilisation.{{sfn|West|1994|pp=1; 13}}  It was an important part of public religious worship,{{sfn|West|1994|p=14}} private ceremonies such as weddings and funerals,{{sfn|West|1994|p=21}} and household entertainment.{{sfn|West|1994|p=24}}  Men sang and played music at the [[symposium]];{{sfn|West|1994|p=25}} both men and women sang at work; and children's games involved song and dance.{{sfn|West|1994|pp=27&ndash;28}}

Ancient Greek music was primarily vocal, sung either by a solo singer or a chorus, and usually accompanied by an instrument; purely instrumental music was less common.{{sfn|West|1994|p=39}}  The Greeks used stringed instruments, including lyres, harps, and lutes;{{sfn|West|1994|p=48}} and wind instruments, of which the most important was the {{transl|grk|aulos}}, a [[reed aerophone|reed instrument]].{{sfn|West|1994|p=81}}  Percussion instruments played a relatively unimportant role supporting stringed and wind instruments, and were used in certain religious cults.{{sfn|West|1994|p=122}}

===Science and technology===
{{Main|List of Graeco-Roman geographers|Greek astronomy|Greek mathematics|Ancient Greek medicine|Ancient Greek technology|Science in classical antiquity}}
[[File:0142 - Archaeological Museum, Athens - Antikythera mechanism - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 11 2009.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Antikythera mechanism]] was an [[analog computer]] from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.]]

Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of [[mathematics]], including the basic rules of [[geometry]], the idea of [[formal proof|formal mathematical proof]], and discoveries in [[number theory]], [[mathematical analysis]], [[applied mathematics]], and approached close to establishing [[integral calculus]]. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including [[Pythagoras]], [[Euclid]], and [[Archimedes]], are still used in mathematical teaching today.

The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] and [[Callippus of Cyzicus]]. Their younger contemporary [[Heraclides Ponticus]] proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC, [[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first to suggest a [[heliocentric]] system. Archimedes in his treatise [[The Sand Reckoner#Estimation of the size of the universe|The Sand Reckoner]] revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that ''"the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle"''. Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.<ref>Pedersen, ''Early Physics and Astronomy'', pp.&nbsp;55–56</ref> [[Eratosthenes]], using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the [[circumference of the Earth]] with great accuracy.<ref>Pedersen, ''Early Physics and Astronomy'', pp.&nbsp;45–47</ref> In the 2nd century BC [[Hipparchus|Hipparchus of Nicea]] made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of [[precession]] and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of [[apparent magnitude]]s.

The [[Antikythera mechanism]], a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical [[computer]]. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of [[Antikythera]], between [[Kythera]] and [[Crete]]. The device became famous for its use of a [[differential gear]], previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]], accompanied by a replica.

The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a [[physician]] of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the [[history of medicine]]. He is referred to as the "[[List of persons considered father or mother of a field#Natural and social sciences|father of medicine]]"<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Grammaticos | first1 = P.C. | last2 = Diamantis | first2 = A. | title = Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus | journal = Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–4 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18392218}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576397/Hippocrates.html Hippocrates], Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091029181928/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576397/Hippocrates.html Archived] 31 October 2009.</ref> in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized [[medicine in ancient Greece]], establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably [[theurgy]] and [[philosophy]]), thus making medicine a profession.<ref name="garrison9293">{{Cite book| last = Garrison | first = Fielding H. | year = 1966 | title = History of Medicine | publisher = W.B. Saunders Company | location = Philadelphia | pages = 92–93}}</ref><ref name="nuland5">{{Cite book | last = Nuland | first = Sherwin B. | year = 1988 | title = Doctors | publisher = Knopf | isbn = 978-0-394-55130-2 | page = [https://archive.org/details/doctorsbiography00nula/page/5 5] | url = https://archive.org/details/doctorsbiography00nula/page/5 }}</ref>

===Art and architecture===
{{Main|Ancient Greek art|Ancient Greek architecture}}
[[File:Sicily Selinunte Temple E (Hera).JPG|thumb|The Temple of [[Hera]] at [[Selinunte]], Sicily]]

The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of [[sculpture]] and [[architecture]]. In the West, the art of the [[Roman Empire]] was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and [[India]]n cultures, resulting in [[Greco-Buddhist art]], with ramifications as far as [[Japan]]. Following the [[Renaissance]] in Europe, the [[Humanism|humanist]] aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the Western world.

===Religion===
{{Main|Ancient Greek religion}}
[[File:Θερμαικος με θεα τον Ολυμπο!.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Olympus]], home of the [[Twelve Olympians]]]]

Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life.{{sfn|Ogden|2007|p=1}} Though the Greeks of different cities and [[ancient Greek tribes|tribes]] worshipped similar gods, religious practices were not uniform and the gods were thought of differently in different places. The Greeks were [[polytheistic]], worshipping many gods, but as early as the sixth century BC a pantheon of [[twelve Olympians]] began to develop.{{sfn|Dowden|2007|p=41}} Greek religion was influenced by the practices of the Greeks' near eastern neighbours at least as early as the archaic period, and by the Hellenistic period this influence was seen in both directions.{{sfn|Noegel|2007|pp=21–22}}

The most important religious act in ancient Greece was [[animal sacrifice]], most commonly of sheep and goats.{{sfn|Bremmer|2007|pp=132–134}} Sacrifice was accompanied by public prayer,{{sfn|Furley|2007|p=121}} and prayer and hymns were themselves a major part of ancient Greek religious life.{{sfn|Furley|2007|p=117}}