Philosophy

== Relation to other fields ==
Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an [[interdisciplinary]] perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1 1]}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA303 303]}} }}</ref>

The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In [[medicine]], philosophical considerations related to [[bioethics]] affect issues like whether an [[embryo]] is already a [[Personhood|person]] and under what conditions [[abortion]] is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for [[animal experiments|research experiments]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} |4={{harvnb|Crary|2013|pp=321–322}} }}</ref> In relation to [[business]] and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of [[corporate social responsibility]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} }}</ref>

Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.{{sfn|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=51–53}} This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on [[empirical evidence]] but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already [[Theory-ladenness|include theoretical assumptions]]. A closely connected problem is whether the available [[Underdetermination|evidence is sufficient]] to decide between competing theories.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bird|2010|pp=5–6, 8–9}} |2={{harvnb|Rosenberg|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VAzy5bGCcs0C&pg=PA129 129, 155]}} }}</ref> Epistemological problems in relation to the [[law]] include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person [[Guilt (law)|guilty]] of a crime. A related issue in [[journalism]] is how to ensure truth and [[Journalistic objectivity|objectivity]] when reporting on events.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}}

In the fields of [[theology]] and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether [[revelation]] in the form of holy books and [[religious experience]]s of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality}} |2={{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Dougherty|2014|pp=97–98}} }}</ref>

[[File:JudithButler2013_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Photo of Judith Butler|[[Judith Butler]] is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.]]
Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and [[computer science]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kakas|Sadri|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wQVqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA588 588]}} |2={{harvnb|Li|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZQ9BQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix–x]}} |3={{harvnb|Nievergelt|2015|pp=v–vi}} }}</ref> Further fields influenced by philosophy include [[psychology]], [[sociology]], linguistics, [[education]], and [[the arts]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=332–37}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 138]}} |3={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, Table of Contents}} |4={{harvnb|Frankena|Raybeck|Burbules|2002|loc=§ Definition}} }}</ref> The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.{{sfn|Cropper|1997}}

In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} }}</ref> Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in [[Enlightenment philosophy]] laid the foundation for [[constitutional democracy]] and played a role in the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]].{{sfn|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory}} Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the [[Russian Revolution]] and the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Pipes|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aXX0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} |2={{harvnb|Wolff|Leopold|2021|loc=§ 9. Marx's Legacy}} |3={{harvnb|Shaw|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H7uZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 124]}} }}</ref> In India, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[Satyagraha#Ahimsa and satyagraha|philosophy of non-violence]] shaped the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Singh|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d0CgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 83]}} |2={{harvnb|Bondurant|1988|pp=23–24}} }}</ref>

An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the [[feminist]] movement through philosophers such as [[Mary Wollstonecraft]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], and [[Judith Butler]]. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of [[gender]], how it differs from [[biological sex]], and what role it plays in the formation of [[personal identity]]. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and [[Social equality|equality]] and their implications with respect to the [[sexism|prejudicial treatment of women]] in [[patriarchy|male-dominated societies]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McAfee|2018|loc=Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements}} |2={{harvnb|Ainley|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bJFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA294 294–296]}} |3={{harvnb|Hirschmann|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZinYQ0vgFEsC&pg=PA148 148–151]}} |4={{harvnb|McAfee|Garry|Superson|Grasswick|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?}}}}</ref>

The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Jones|Bos|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g6x_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 56]}} |2={{harvnb|Rickles|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rSrfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 9]}} |3={{harvnb|Lockie|2015|pp=24–28}} }}</ref>