Jerusalem

===Middle Ages===
{{main|Medieval Jerusalem}}

====Early Muslim period====
{{main|History of Jerusalem during the Early Muslim period|History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages|l2 = the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Jerusalem-2013(2)-Temple Mount-Dome of the Rock (SE exposure).jpg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque, commissioned in late 7th century AD. It is designated as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], and called "Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark".<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/01/29/arafats-gift |title=Arafat's Gift |first=Jeffrey |last=Goldberg |author-link=Jeffrey Goldberg |date=29 January 2001 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=11 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714192414/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/01/29/arafats-gift |archive-date=14 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

[[File:Umm ar-Rasas Church of St. Stephen Jerusalem 2785.jpg|thumb|A depiction of Jerusalem in the Byzantine [[Umm ar-Rasas mosaics]], identified as Hagia Polis in Greek, the Holy City, during the time of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in 785.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CpfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA313 |title=New Rome: The Empire in the East |author=Paul Stephenson |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9780674659629 |access-date=26 October 2023 |archive-date=26 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026161042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CpfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

After the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] in 638 CE.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Dan Bahat]] |title=The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha |url-access=limited |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha/page/n61 71] |year=1996 |publisher=Carta |isbn=978-965-220-348-9}}</ref> Among the first [[Muslims]], it was referred to as ''Madinat bayt al-Maqdis'' ("City of the Temple"),<ref>Ben-Dov, M. ''Historical Atlas of Jerusalem''. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171</ref> a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: ''Aelia Capitolina''".<ref>Linquist, J.M., ''The Temple of Jerusalem'', Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184</ref> Later the Temple Mount became known as ''al-Haram al-Sharif'', "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'',<ref>Grabar, Oleg. The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem. With Contributions by Mohammad al-Asad, Abeer Audeh, Said Nuseibeh. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 112</ref> and later still, ''al-Quds al-Sharif'' "The Holy, Noble". 

The [[Islamization]] of Jerusalem began in the first year [[Hijri year|A.H.]] (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca.<ref>''In the Lands of the Prophet'', ''Time''-Life, p. 29</ref><ref name=Watt1974>{{cite book |author=William Montgomery Watt |title=Muhammad: prophet and statesman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C&pg=PA113 |access-date=29 December 2011 |date=7 February 1974 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |pages=112–13 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083735/https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C&pg=PA113 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 638 CE the Islamic [[Caliphate]] extended its dominion to Jerusalem.<ref name=Gilbert7>Gilbert (1978), p. 7.</ref> With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |url=https://archive.org/details/historypalestine00gilm |url-access=limited |last=Gil |first=Moshe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=February 1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historypalestine00gilm/page/n96 70]–71}}</ref> The [[Rashidun]] caliph [[Umar|Umar ibn al-Khattab]] signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem [[Sophronius of Jerusalem|Sophronius]], assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |last=Runciman |first=Steven |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1951 |volume=1 |pages=3–4 |no-pp=true |isbn=978-0-521-34770-9}}</ref> 

Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.<ref>[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades'', (3 vols. 1951–1954, Cambridge University Press), Penguin Books, 1965 vol. 1, pp. 3–4, citing [[Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria|Eutychius]], [[Michael the Syrian]] and Elias of Nisibin. The many sources conserving the story are summarized in Hugues Vincent, [[Félix-Marie Abel|F. M. Abel]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=bCixXwAACAAJ Jérusalem Nouvelle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021319/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCixXwAACAAJ |date=27 March 2024 }}, 1914 tome 2, pp. 930–932,</ref> He prayed outside the church, where the [[Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem)|Mosque of Umar (Omar)]] stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop [[Arculf]], who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.<ref name=YShalem>{{cite web |last=Shalem |first=Yisrael |title=The Early Arab Period – 638–1099 |publisher=Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, [[Bar-Ilan University]] |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_8.html |access-date=20 July 2008 |archive-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216173527/http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_8.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

When the Arab armies under [[Umar]] went to ''Bayt Al-Maqdes'' in 637 CE, they searched for the site of [[Temple Mount|''al-masjid al-aqsa'']], "the farthest place of prayer/mosque", that was mentioned in the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]] according to Islamic beliefs. Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it.<ref>Rivka Gonen, ''Contested holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem'', Ktav Publishing House, 2003, p. 85; ''The History of al-Tabari'', vol. XII, Albany: State University of New York Press 2007, pp. 194–95.</ref> The [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] commissioned the construction of a shrine on the Temple Mount, now known as the Dome of the Rock, in the late 7th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament |last=Hoppe |first=Leslie J. |publisher=Michael Glazier Books |date=August 2000 |isbn=978-0-8146-5081-3 |page=15}}</ref> Two of the city's most-distinguished Arab citizens of the 10th-century were [[Al-Muqaddasi]], the geographer, and [[Al-Tamimi, the physician]]. Al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the edifice on the Temple Mount in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.<ref name=YShalem/>

Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region vied for control of the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-3.htm |last=Zank |first=Michael |publisher=Boston University |title=Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099) |access-date=1 February 2007 |archive-date=10 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910035229/http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period4-3.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Jerusalem was captured in 1073 by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] Turkish commander [[Atsiz ibn Uvaq|Atsız]].<ref>[http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/ Islam encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061225/http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/ |date=26 December 2018 }} {{in lang|tr}} Vol. 26 pp. 323–27</ref> After Atsız was killed, the Seljuk prince [[Tutush I]] granted the city to [[Artuk Bey]], another Seljuk commander. After Artuk's death in 1091 his sons [[Sökmen of Artukids|Sökmen]] and [[Ilghazi]] governed in the city up to 1098 when the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] recaptured the city.

A messianic [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.<ref>David E. Sklare, 'Yūsuf al-Bașīr: Theological Aspects of his Halakhic Works,' in Daniel Frank (ed.) ''The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society & Identity'', E. J. Brill, 1995, pp. 249–270. p. 249. They were known as ''avelei șion'' (Mourners of Zion) or ''Shoshanim'' (Lilies(among the thorns))</ref>

====Crusader/Ayyubid period====
{{further|History of Jerusalem during the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|200 px|A medieval illustration of the capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099.]]

In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|besieged]] by the soldiers of the [[First Crusade]]. After taking the solidly defended city by assault, the Crusaders massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and made it the capital of their [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. The city, which had been virtually emptied, was recolonized by a variegated inflow of [[Greeks]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Hungarians]], [[Georgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Syrians]], [[Egyptians]], [[Nestorians]], [[Maronites]], [[Jacob Baradeus|Jacobite]] Miaphysites, [[Copts]] and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews. The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan.<ref>Adrian J. Boas, ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades'', Routledge 2001, pp. 14, 35.</ref> As a result, by 1099 Jerusalem's population had climbed back to some 30,000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hull |first=Michael D. |date=June 1999 |title=First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem |journal=Military History |url=http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3028446.html?page=4&c=y |access-date=18 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181302/http://www.historynet.com/historical_conflicts/3028446.html?page=4&c=y |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2017}}

In 1187, [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|the city was wrested]] from the Crusaders by [[Saladin]] who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.<ref name=century1>{{cite web |url=http://www.centuryone.com/hstjrslm.html |publisher=The CenturyOne Foundation |title=Main Events in the History of Jerusalem |access-date=2 February 2007 |year=2003 |work=Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade |archive-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113084400/http://www.centuryone.com/hstjrslm.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.<ref>Adrian J. Boas, ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades'', Routledge 2001, pp. 16, 19</ref> Under the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, [[Hammam|public baths]], and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA209 |first1=Janet L. |last1=Abu-Lughod |first2=Michael |last2=Dumper |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-919-5 |page=209 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083739/https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA209 |url-status=live}}</ref>

From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II]] and [[al-Kamil]], the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[sultan]] of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]], that ended the [[Sixth Crusade]].<ref name=Addington01a>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CBEesvW2okC&pg=PA59 |title=The Patterns of War Through the Eighteenth Century |series=Midland book |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |author=Larry H. Addington |page=59 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-253-20551-3 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=in the Sixth Crusade, Frederick II ...concluded a treaty with the Saracens in 1229 that placed Jerusalem under Christian control but allowed Muslim and Christian alike freedom of access to the religious shrines of the city. ... Within fifteen years of Frederick's departure from the Holy Land, the Khwarisimian Turks, successors to the Seljuks, rampaged through Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in 1244. (Jerusalem would not be ruled again by Christians until the British occupied it in December 1917, during World War I). |author-link=Larry H. Addington |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083740/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CBEesvW2okC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Pringle01a>{{cite book |last=Pringle |first=Denys |title=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus |volume=3, The City of Jerusalem |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=5 |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-39038-5 |quote=During the period of Christian control of Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244 ... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA5 |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083740/https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Wharton01a>{{cite book |author=[[Annabel Jane Wharton|Wharton, A.J.]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1_BBK-LsesC&pg=PA106 |title=Selling Jerusalem: Relics, Replicas, Theme Parks |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |page=106 |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-226-89422-5 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=(footnote 19): It is perhaps worth noting that the same sultan, al-Malik al-Kamil, was later involved in the negotiations with Emperor Frederick II that briefly reestablished Latin control in Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244. |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083741/https://books.google.com/books?id=P1_BBK-LsesC&pg=PA106 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Askari01a>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6REAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |title=Conflicts in the Persian Gulf: Origins and Evolution |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |author=Hossein Askari |page=52 |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-137-35838-7 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=Later, during the years 1099 through 1187 AD and 1229 through 1244 AD, Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem ... |author-link=Hossein Askari |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083743/https://books.google.com/books?id=U6REAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Maoz01a>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=o6YuXfFUwBgC |page=3 |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |editor=Ma'oz, Moshe |editor-link=:de:Moshe Ma'oz |page=3 |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-84519-395-9 |access-date=30 May 2014 |quote=(Introduction by Moshe Ma'oz) ... When the Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem (AD 1099–1187, 1229–1244) ...}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.

In 1244, [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|Jerusalem was sacked]] by the [[Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246|Khwarezmian Tatars]], who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.<ref name=Gilbert25>Gilbert (1978), p. 25.</ref> The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247.

====Mamluk period====
From 1260<ref name="Bloom">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |encyclopedia=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |access-date=30 May 2014 |editor1=[[Jonathan M. Bloom]] |volume=2 |page=348 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |chapter=Jerusalem |editor2=[[Sheila S. Blair]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=%2290+buildings%22&pg=RA1-PA348 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021353/https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=%2290+buildings%22&pg=RA1-PA348#v=snippet&q=%2290%20buildings%22&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the [[Mongol raids into Palestine|Mongols]], on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and [[Black Death|black plague]].<ref>Michael Avi-Yonah, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AhasMr2F3i8C&pg=PA279 ''A History of Israel and the Holy Land''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327021320/https://books.google.com/books?id=AhasMr2F3i8C&pg=PA279#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=27 March 2024 }}, A&C Black, 2003 p. 279.</ref> When [[Nachmanides]] visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city.<ref>Hunt Janin, [https://archive.org/details/fourpathstojerus0000jani/page/120 ''Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE''], McFarland, 2002 p. 120.</ref> The well-known and far-traveled [[Lexicography|lexicographer]] [[Fairuzabadi]] (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/firuzabadi-s-al-qamus-al-muhit/SwFS5bJVWxyzgw |title=Firuzabadi's al-Qamus al-Muhit |website=Google Arts & Culture |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204819/https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/firuzabadi-s-al-qamus-al-muhit/SwFS5bJVWxyzgw |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Peregrinatio_in_terram_sanctam_Jerusalem_map_in_color.jpg|thumb|300px|Jerusalem, from 'Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam' by [[Bernhard von Breidenbach|Bernhard von Breydenbach]], 1486]]

The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.<ref name="Bloom" /> The city was also a significant site of [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk architectural]] patronage. The types of structures built included [[madrasa]]s, libraries, [[Bimaristan|hospitals]], [[caravanserai]]s, fountains (or [[Sebil (fountain)|sabils]]), and public baths.<ref name=Bloom/> Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif.<ref name=Bloom/> Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built,<ref name=Bloom/> while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period.<ref name=Burgoyne>{{Cite book |last=Burgoyne |first=Michael Hamilton |title=Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study |publisher=For the [[British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem]]; the World of Islam Festival Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-905035-33-8}}</ref> 

[[Tankiz]], the Mamluk [[Emir|amir]] in charge of [[Syria (region)|Syria]] during the reign of [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], built a new market called ''Suq al-Qattatin'' (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as ''Bab al-Qattanin'' (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market.<ref name=Bloom/><ref name=Burgoyne/> The late Mamluk sultan [[Qaitbay|al-Ashraf Qaytbay]] also took interest in the city. He commissioned the building of the [[Madrasa Al-Ashrafiyya|Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya]], completed in 1482, and the nearby [[Fountain of Qayt Bay|Sabil of Qaytbay]], built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount.<ref name=Bloom/><ref name=Burgoyne/> Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.<ref name=Burgoyne/>{{Rp|589–612}}