Jaffa

===British Mandate===
<gallery>
File:Jaffa 1929.jpg|Jaffa 1929 1:20,000
File:Jaffa 1943.jpg|Jaffa 1943 1:20,000
File:Bat Yam 1945.jpg|Jaffa 1945 1:250,000
</gallery>

====1920s: conflict and development====
According to the [[1922 census of Palestine]] conducted by the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate authorities]], Jaffa had a population of 47,799, consisting of 20,699 Muslims, 20,152 Jews and 6,850 Christians,<ref name="Census1922">Barron, 1923, p.[https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n8/mode/1up 6]</ref> increasing to 51,866 in the [[1931 census of Palestine|1931 census]], residing in 11,304 houses.<ref name="Census1931">Mills, 1932, p. [https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas 13]</ref>

During the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate]], tension between the Jewish and Arab population increased. A wave of Arab attacks during 1920 and 1921 caused many Jewish residents to flee and resettle in [[Tel Aviv]], initially a marginal Jewish neighborhood north of Jaffa. The [[Jaffa riots]] in 1921, (known in Hebrew as ''Meoraot Tarpa'') began with a [[May Day]] parade that turned violent. Arab rioters attacked Jewish residents and buildings killing 47 Jews and wounding 146.<ref>Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the disturbances in the British Mandate of Palestine in May 1921, with correspondence relating thereto (Disturbances), 1921, Cmd. 1540, p. 60.</ref> The Hebrew author [[Yosef Haim Brenner]] was killed in the riots.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://sarahhonig.com/2009/04/30/another-tack-the-may-day-massacre-of-1921/ |title= Another Tack: The May Day Massacre of 1921 |date= 30 April 2009 |first= Sarah |last= Honig}}</ref> At the end of 1922, Tel Aviv had 15,000 residents: by 1927, the population had risen to 38,000.

Still, during most of the 1920s Jaffa and Tel Aviv maintained peaceful co-existence. Most Jewish businesses were located in Jaffa, some Jewish neighbourhoods paid taxes to the municipality of Jaffa, many young Jews who could not afford the housing costs of Tel Aviv resided there, and the big neighbourhood of [[Menashiya]] was by and large fully mixed. The first electric company in the British Mandate of Palestine, although owned by Jewish shareholders, had been named the Jaffa Electric Company. In 1923, both Jaffa and Tel Aviv had begun a rapid process of wired electrification through a joint grid.<ref>Ronen Shamir (2013) Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine. Stanford: Stanford University Press</ref>

====1930s: Arab revolt (1936–39)====
[[File:Jaffa Alhambra Cinema03562ucroped.jpg|thumb|Jaffa's [[Alhambra Cinema (Israel)|Alhambra Cinema]] flying an [[Flag of Palestine|Arab flag]], 1937]]

The [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]] severely impacted Jaffa. On 19 April 1936, [[Jaffa riots (April 1936)|riots broke out in Jaffa]] after rumors spread among the local Arab community that Jews had started to kill Arabs; Arab rioters attacked Jewish targets for three days before British security forces quelled the rioting. 9 Jews and 2 Arabs were killed and dozens more were wounded.<ref name="VitonArabsKill">{{cite news|last1=Viton|first1=Albert|title=Why Arabs Kill Jews|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/why-arabs-kill-jews/|access-date=24 August 2016|publisher=[[The Nation]]|date=3 June 1936}}</ref> In response to the riots, Arab leadership in Palestine declared a [[general strike]], which began in the [[Jaffa Port]] and quickly spread to the rest of the region.<ref name=LTBI>''The Land That Become Israel: Studies in Historical Geography,'' ed. Ruth Kark, Yale University Press & Magnes Press, 1989, "Aerial Perspectives of Past Landscapes," Dov Gavish, pp. 316–317</ref> After the start of the general strike, [[British Armed Forces|British troops]] stationed in Palestine were bolstered by reinforcements from [[Malta]] and [[Egypt]] to subdue rioting which had broken out in several major Palestinian cities. Arab rioters in Jaffa used the [[Old Jaffa|Old City]], which contained a maze of homes, winding alleyways and an underground sewer system, to escape arrest by British security forces.<ref name=LTBI/>

Beginning in May 1936, in response to further Arab unrest in Jaffa, the British authorities suspended municipal services in the city, establishing barricades around the Old City and covering access roads with glass shards and nails.<ref name=LTBI/> On June of that year, [[Royal Air Force]] bombers dropped boxes of leaflets in Arabic on Jaffa, requesting the city's inhabitants to evacuate that same day.<ref name=LTBI/> In June 15, the [[Royal Engineers]] used [[gelignite]] charges to [[House demolition|demolish]] between 220 and 240 Arab-owned homes in the Old City, leaving an open strip which cut through the center of Jaffa from end to end and displacing approximately 6,000 Arabs.<ref name="Hughes" >Matthew Hughes, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/31008337_The_Banality_of_Brutality_British_Armed_Forces_and_the_Repression_of_the_Arab_Revolt_in_Palestine_1936-39 'The Banality of Brutality: British Armed Forces and the Repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936 – 39'], [[English Historical Review]] Vol. CXXIV No. 507 pp.323–354 pp.322.323.</ref> On the evening of 17 June, 1,500 British troops entered Jaffa and a [[Royal Navy]] warship moved near the Jaffa Port to seal off escape routes by sea. On 29 June, British forces carried out another round of house demolitions, carving a swath from north to south.<ref name=LTBI/> 

The British authorities claimed that house demolitions in Jaffa were part of a "facelift" given to the Old City.<ref name=LTBI/> Local Arab newspapers resorted to using sarcasm to describe the demolitions, writing that the British had "beautified" Jaffa using boxes of gelignite.<ref name="Hughes" /> [[Michael McDonnell|Sir Michael McDonnell]], then serving as the [[Mandatory Palestine#Government and institutions|Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Palestine]], found in favor of Arab petitions from Jaffa and, upholding existing laws regarding house demolitions, ruled against the demolitions carried out by British forces in the Old City. In response, the [[Colonial Office]] dismissed him from his post.<ref>Matthew Hughes, ''Britain’s Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936– 1939,'' [[Cambridge University Press]]2019 p.36.</ref> The report produced by the [[Peel Commission]] in 1937 recommended that Jaffa, together with [[Bethlehem]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramla|Ramle]], remain under permanent British control, forming a "corridor" from the sea port to the Holy Places, accessible to Arabs and Jews alike; whereas the rest of Mandatory Palestine was to be split between an Arab state and a Jewish state.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220803234548/https://unispal.un.org/pdfs/Cmd5479.pdf Peel Report], quote: "Jaffa is an essentially Arab town in which the Jewish minority has recently been dwindling. We suggest that it should form part of the Arab State. The question of its communication with the latter presents no difficulty, since transit through the Jaffa-Jerusalem Corridor would be open to all. The Corridor, on the other hand, requires its own access to the sea, and for this purpose a narrow belt of land should be acquired and cleared on the north and south sides of the town. This would also solve the problem, sometimes said to be insoluble, created by the contiguity of Jaffa with Tel Aviv to the north and the nascent Jewish town [Bat Yam] to the south. If necessary, Mandatory police could be stationed on this belt. This arrangement may seem artificial, but it is clearly practicable."</ref>

====1940-47: WWII; frictions====
[[Village Statistics, 1945|Village Statistics of 1945]] listed Jaffa with a population of 94,310, of whom 50,880 were Muslims, 28,000 were Jews, 15,400 were Christians and 30 were classified as "other".<ref name=1945p27>Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p27.jpg 27]</ref> The Christians were mostly [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and about one-sixth of them were members of the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]. One of the most prominent members of the Arab Christian community was the Greek Orthodox [[Issa El-Issa]], publisher of the newspaper [[Falastin (newspaper)|''Falastin'']].

In 1945, the Jewish community of Jaffa complained to the city mayor [[Yousef Haikal]] that their neighbourhoods don't receive appropriate municipal services (street lighting and paving, garbage removal, sewerage etc.) even though they contribute 40% of the municipality's budget. Some of the services (education, healthcare, and social services) had already been provided by [[Tel Aviv Municipality]] at its own expense, which formed the base for the Jewish community's demand that the Mandatory government annex their neighbourhoods to Tel Aviv.<ref>{{cite web |title= ⁨שכונות יפו חוזרות ודורשות: סיפוח! העבודות בשכונה נמסרות ,למציע הזול ביותר" ⁩ &#124; ⁨הבקר⁩ &#124; 13 יולי 1945 &#124; אוסף העיתונות &#124; הספרייה הלאומית | url= https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hbkr/1945/07/13/01/article/83/}}</ref> In the year of 1946, Tel Aviv Municipality spent [[£P]] 300K on services for the Jewish neighbourhoods of Jaffa,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hbkr/1947/04/10/01/article/80/ | title=⁨סיפוח מהיר לתל־אביב תובעים תושבי שני יפו ⁩ &#124; ⁨הבקר⁩ &#124; 10 אפריל 1947 &#124; אוסף העיתונות &#124; הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> an increase from £P 80K in the year of 1942.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/haretz/1943/08/05/01/article/28/ | title=⁨השכונות היהודיות של יפו דורשות סיפוח מידי לתל־אביב ⁩ &#124; ⁨הארץ⁩ &#124; 5 אוגוסט 1943 &#124; אוסף העיתונות &#124; הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref>

====1947-48: partition plan and armed conflict====
In 1947, the UN Special Commission on Palestine recommended that Jaffa be included in the planned Jewish state. Due to the large Arab majority, however, it was instead designated as an [[enclave]] of the Arab state in the 1947 [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]]. The enclave would have excluded the northern Jewish-populated parts of the city, but included the agricultural lands to the south and east of the city, extending to the then-boundaries of [[Mikveh Israel]], [[Holon]] and [[Bat Yam]].<ref>{{citation |quote= The area of the Arab enclave of Jaffa consists of that part of the town-planning area of Jaffa which lies to the west of the Jewish quarters lying south of Tel-Aviv, to the west of the continuation of Herzl street up to its junction with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road, to the south-west of the section of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road lying south-east of that junction, to the west of Miqve Israel lands, to the north-west of Holon local council area, to the north of the line linking up the north-west corner of Holon with the north-east corner of Bat Yam local council area and to the north of Bat Yam local council area. The question of Karton quarter will be decided by the Boundary Commission, bearing in mind among other considerations the desirability of including the smallest possible number of its Arab inhabitants and the largest possible number of its Jewish inhabitants in the Jewish State. |url= http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130416002129/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 16 April 2013 |title= A/RES/181(II)(A+B), Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine (UN Partition Plan details) |date= 29 November 1947 |publisher= United Nations General Assembly }}</ref>

Following the inter-communal violence which broke out following the passing of the UN partition resolution, the mayors of Jaffa and Tel Aviv tried to calm their communities.<ref>{{cite book |title=The faithful city: the siege of Jerusalem, 1948 |first=Dov |last=Joseph |author-link=Dov Yosef |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1960 |lccn=60-10976 |oclc=266413 |url=https://archive.org/details/thefaithfulcity0000unse/page/24/mode/2up |url-access=registration |page=24 |quote=In an exchange of letters between Mayor Yisrael Rokach of Tel Aviv and Mayor Youssef Haikal of Jaffa, both agreed to call upon the residents to maintain peace and quiet.}}</ref> One of the main concerns for the people of Jaffa was the protection of the citrus fruit export trade which had still not reached its pre-Second World War highs.<ref>'A survey of Palestine', printed 1946–1947. Reprinted ISP, Washington, 1991 {{ISBN|0-88728-211-3}}. Page 474: Exports of citrus fruit total value in Palestine Pounds, 1938/39 = P£4,355,853. 1944/45 = P£1,474,854. Ironically, due to the Nazi conquest of the [[Netherlands]], Tel Aviv's trade in polished diamonds had increased over three-fold to P£3,235,117. Page 476</ref> Eventually the bilateral orange-picking and exporting of both sides continued although without a formal agreement.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/>

[[File:1947 Arab-Israeli War (997008136835005171).jpg|thumb|Jewish fighters on the Jaffa-Tel Aviv front in 1947]]

At the beginning of 1948 Jaffa's defenders consisted of one company of around 400 men organised by the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], almost none of them Palestinian Arabs (the "Arab Brigade"), and the local Arab irregulars of the National Guard.<ref>Pritzke, Herbert (1956). ''Bedouin Doctor&nbsp;— The adventures of a German in the Middle East''. Translated by Richard Graves. Weidenfeld and Nicolson (1957), copyright Ullstein and Co, Vienna (1956). Page 149: "At that time the Arab Brigade in Jaffa consisted of seven Germans, one hundred and fifty [[Jugoslavs]], thirty Egyptians and two hundred Lebanese and Syrians. There were very few Arabs among them as these preferred irregular warfare with the National Guard ..."</ref> As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/>

[[File:Grand Serai, Jaffa.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the 'Saraya' after the [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] bomb attack]]

On 4 January 1948, the [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] detonated a truck bomb outside the ''Saraya'', formerly the Ottoman administrative building and now housing the Arab National Committee. The building and some nearby buildings were destroyed. Most of the 26 dead and many wounded were not connected to the National Committee but were passersby and staff at a food distribution programme for poor children that was also in the same building. Most of the children were not present as it was Sunday.<ref>{{cite book |last= Radai |first= Itamar |title= Palestinians in Jerusalem and Jaffa, 1948 |publisher= Routledge |year= 2016 |page= 140}}</ref>

In February Jaffa's Mayor, [[Yousef Haikal]], contacted [[David Ben-Gurion]] through a British intermediary trying to secure a peace agreement with Tel Aviv, but the commander of the Arab militia in Jaffa opposed it.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/>{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=47}}

On 25 April 1948, the [[Irgun]] launched an offensive on Jaffa. This began with a mortar bombardment which went on for three days during which twenty tons of high explosive were fired into the town.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=95}}<ref>Menachem Begin, 'The Revolt&nbsp;— story of the Irgun'. Translated by Samuel Katz. Hadar Publishing, Tel Aviv. 1964. pp. 355–371.</ref> On 27 April the British Government, fearing a repetition of the mass exodus from [[Haifa]] the week before, ordered the British Army to confront the Irgun and their offensive ended. Simultaneously the [[Haganah]] had launched [[Operation Hametz]], which overran the villages east of Jaffa and cut the town off from the interior.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=100}} On 29 April, the Irgun commander for the Tel-Aviv & Jaffa district, [[Eliyahu Tamler]], was killed by a British shell.<ref>https://www.izkor.gov.il/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%20%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%A8/en_5d5ed699cd3ff5f16d392bda8c0731c9</ref>

The [[Battle of Haifa (1948)|fall of Haifa]] a few days earlier, and fear of another massacre similar to Irgun's [[Deir Yassin massacre]], caused panic across the Arabs of Jaffa, leading most of them to flee.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC&q=eugene+rogan+history+of+arabs|title=The Arabs: A History – Third Edition|author=Eugene Rogan|page=331|publisher=Penguin|year=2012|isbn=9780718196837 }}</ref> The population of Jaffa on the eve of the attack was between 50,000 and 60,000, with some 20,000 people having already left the town.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=95}} By 30 April, there were 15,000–25,000 remaining.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=100}}<ref>Begin, page 363.</ref> In the following days a further 10,000–20,000 people fled by sea. When the Haganah took control of the town on 14 May around 4,000 people were left.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=101|ps=, "On 18 May Ben-Gurion visited the conquered city for the first time and commented:"I couldn't understand: Why did the inhabitants of Jaffa leave?"}} The town and harbour's warehouses were extensively looted.<ref>Jon Kimche, 'Seven Falen Pillars; The Middle East, 1915–1950'. Secker and Warburg, London. 1950. Page 224 :'the orgy of looting and wanton destruction which hangs like a black pall over almost all the Jewish military successes.'</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Karpel |first= Dalia |title= Wellsprings of memory |newspaper= Haaretz |date= 14 February 2008 |url= http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/952270.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090325111844/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/952270.html |archive-date= 25 March 2009}}</ref> The displacement of Jaffa's Arab population was part of the larger [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight]].

The city surrendered to the Haganah on 14 May 1948 and shortly after the British police and army left the city.<ref>[[Yoav Gelber]], ''Independence Versus Nakba''; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|965-517-190-6}}, p.104</ref>
The 3,800 Arabs who remained in Jaffa after the exodus were concentrated in the [[Ajami, Jaffa|Ajami district]] and subject to strict martial law.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Goldhaber |first1= Ravit |last2= Schnell |first2= Izhak |title= A Model of Multidimensional Segregation in the Arab Ghetto in Tel Aviv-Jaffa |pages= 603–620 |journal= Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie |year= 2007 |volume= 98 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00428.x }}</ref> The military administration in Jaffa lasted until 1 June 1949, at which point, [[Tel Aviv Municipality]] took over the administration; Jaffa Municipality, ''de-jure'' still in existence at the time, had not exercised any authority since 1948 until its dissolution in 1950.<ref name=ytlv1950>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ytlv/1950/09/16/01/article/8/ | title=⁨§ייפ1חח חרשםי של יפו לתל־אביב ⁩ &#124; ⁨ידיעות עירית תל אביב⁩ &#124; 16 ספטמבר 1950 &#124; אוסף העיתונות &#124; הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref>
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