History of Christianity

=== Regional developments (600–1100) ===
{{See also|Christianity in the Middle Ages|Christianization of Serbs|Christianization of Bohemia|Christianization of Moravia|Crusades|Northern Crusades}}
{{Further|Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy|History of the Eastern Orthodox Church|History of Oriental Orthodoxy|East–West Schism|Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism}}
[[File:Rome, S. Maria del Rosario; Madonna of San Sisto (after restoration).png|thumb|upright=.8|The Madonna of San Sisto (after restoration) dating from the 6th century is perhaps the oldest existing image of Mary|alt=restored painting from the 6th century of Mary mother of Jesus]]
In the West, [[Charlemagne]] began the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] in the 800s. Sometimes called a Christian renaissance, it was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural studies, a renovation of law and the courts, and the promotion of literacy.{{sfn|Collins|1998|p=1}}

[[Gregorian Reform]] (1050–1080) established new canon law. That included laws requiring the consent of both parties for marriage, a minimum age for marriage, and laws making it a sacrament.{{sfn|Shahar|2003|p=33}}{{sfn|Witte|1997|pp=20–23}} This made the union a binding contract, which meant abandonment was prosecutable with dissolution of marriage overseen by Church authorities.{{sfn|Witte|1997|pp=29–30}} Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage, in practice men were granted dissolutions more frequently than women.{{sfn|Witte|1997|pp=20, 25}}{{sfn|Shahar|2003|p=18}}

The veneration of the [[Virgin Mary]] grew dramatically in the Middle Ages within the monasteries in western medieval Europe. It spread through society and flourished in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries with the emergence of [[affective piety]], which grew from empathy with the human Christ and his suffering, and exhibited itself in compassion toward the suffering of others. People of the time praised Mary for making God tangible.{{sfn|Shoemaker|2016|p=21}}{{sfn|Fulton|2009|pp= 284–285, 294}} 

Throughout the Middle Ages, abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots.{{sfn|Oestereich|1907}}{{sfn|Hunt|2020}} 

Having begun in Christianity's first 500 years, [[Christian mysticism]] came to its full flowering in the Middle Ages.{{sfn|King|2001|pp=4, 22}}{{sfn|Hollywood|2009|pp=298–299}} This period included a longing for the genuine "apostolic life" with particular sensitivity to the practice of voluntary holy poverty.{{sfn|Van Engen|1986|p=523}}

====Near East, Byzantium and schism====
[[File:Church of the East in the Middle Ages.svg|thumb|The [[Church of the East]] during the Middle Ages|alt=map showing Church of the East in the Middle Ages]]
[[File:Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (focused on the original Roman building).jpg|thumb|[[Hagia Sophia]] was the religious and spiritual centre of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] for nearly one thousand years. The [[Hagia Sophia]] and the [[Parthenon]] were converted into mosques. Violent persecutions of Christians were common and reached their climax in the [[Armenian genocide|Armenian]], [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]], and [[Greek genocide|Greek]] genocides.{{sfn|Barton|1998b|p=vii}}{{sfn|Morris|Ze'evi|2019|pp=3–5}}|alt=image of Hagia Sophia]]
Towards the end of the sixth century, two main kinds of Christian communities had formed in [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], [[Persia]], and [[Armenia]]: urban churches which upheld the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451 CE) saying Christ had one human/divine nature, and Nestorian churches which came from the desert monasteries asserting Christ had two separate natures.{{sfn|Dorfmann-Lazarev|2008|pp=65-66}} The distinctive doctrinal and cultural identities of these churches played a decisive role in their history after the Arab conquest.{{sfn|Dorfmann-Lazarev|2008|pp=66-67}}

Intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern [[Iran]], [[Arabia]], central [[Asia]], China, and the coasts of [[India]] and Indonesia adopting [[Nestorian Christianity]]. Syrian Nestorians had settled in the [[Persian Empire]] which spread over modern [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], and parts of Central Asia.{{sfn|Brown|2008|p=5}}{{sfn|Micheau|2006|p=378}} The rural areas of Upper Egypt were all Nestorian. [[Copts|Coptic]] missionaries spread the faith up the Nile to [[Nubia]], [[Eritrea]], and [[Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Dorfmann-Lazarev|2008|pp=66-67}}

From the early 600s, a series of Arab military campaigns conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1992|pp=192, 199}}{{sfn|Barton|2009|p=xvii}} Conquest, conflict, and persecution exercised a lasting influence on the churches in these regions.{{sfn|Dorfmann-Lazarev|2008|p=85}} Under Islamic rule, persecution of non-Muslims was particularly devastating in cities where Chalcedonian churches were located. The monastic background of the Nestorians made their churches more remote, so they often escaped direct attention. In the following centuries, it was the Nestorian churches who were best able to survive and cultivate new traditions.{{sfn|Dorfmann-Lazarev|2008|p=66}}

[[Mozarabs|''Andalusi Christians'']],{{sfn|Bennison|2016|p=166}} from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] lived under [[Muslims|Muslim]] rule from [[Muslim conquest of Spain|711]] to [[Granada War|1492]].{{sfn|Fierro|2008|pp=137–164}} The martyrdoms of forty-eight Christians for defending their Christian faith took place in [[Emirate of Córdoba|Córdoba]] between 850 and 859.{{sfn|Graves|1964|p=644}}{{sfn|Sahner|2020|pp=1–28}}{{sfn|Fierro|2008|pp=137–164}}{{sfn|Trombley|1996|pp=581–582}} Executed under [[Abd al-Rahman II]] and [[Muhammad I of Córdoba|Muhammad I]], the record shows the executions were for capital violations of Islamic law, including [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]] and [[Islam and blasphemy|blasphemy]].{{sfn|Sahner|2020|pp=1–28}}{{sfn|Fierro|2008|pp=137–164}}{{sfn|Trombley|1996|pp=581–582}}

Many cultural, geographical, geopolitical, and linguistic differences between East and West existed. There were disagreements over whether Pope or Patriarch should lead the Church, whether mass should be conducted in Latin or Greek, whether priests must remain celibate, and other points of doctrine such as the ''[[Filioque|Filioque Clause]]'' and Nestorianism.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1992|p=185}}{{sfn|Meyendorff|1979|p=intro.}}{{sfn|Lorenzetti|2023}} Eventually, this produced the [[East–West Schism]], also known as the "Great Schism" of 1054, which separated the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1979|p=intro.}}

====Crusade====
[[File:Map Crusader states 1135-en.svg|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the [[Crusader states]] with their strongholds in the [[Holy Land]] at their height, between the [[First Crusade|First]] and the [[Second Crusade|Second]] Crusade (1135)|alt=image of Map Crusader states 1135]] 
After 1071, when the [[Seljuk Turks]] closed access for Christian pilgrimages and defeated the Byzantines at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]], the Emperor [[Alexius I]] asked for aid from [[Pope Urban II]]. Historian [[Jaroslav Folda]] writes that Urban II responded by calling upon the knights of Christendom at the [[Council of Clermont]] on 27 November 1095, to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land", an appeal aimed largely at those with sufficient wealth and position to subsidize their own journey.{{sfn|Folda|1995|p=141}}{{sfn|Tyerman|1992|pp=15–16}} The [[First Crusade]] captured Antioch in 1099, then Jerusalem, establishing the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Folda|1995|p=36}}

The [[Second Crusade]] began after [[County of Edessa|Edessa]] was taken by Islamic forces in 1144.{{sfn|Fonnesberg-Schmidt|2007|p=65}} Christians lost Jerusalem in 1187 through the catastrophic defeat of the Franks at the [[Battle of Hattin|Horns of Hattin]].{{sfn|Folda|1995|p=150}} The [[Third Crusade]] did not regain the major Holy sites.{{sfn|Folda|1995|p=150}}

The [[Fourth Crusade]], begun by [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] in 1202 was subverted by the Venetians. They funded it, then ran out of money and instructed the crusaders to go to Constantinople and get money there. Crusaders sacked the city and other parts of Asia Minor, established the [[Latin Empire]] of Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor, and contributed to the downfall of the Byzantine Empire. Five numbered crusades to the Holy Land culminated in the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|siege of Acre]] in 1291, essentially ending Western presence in the Holy Land.{{sfn|Marshall|1994|p=1}} Crusades led to the development of national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural change for all involved.{{sfn|Kostick|2010|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1992|pp=192–195}}

====Investiture and papal primacy====
[[File:Canossa-gate.jpg|thumb|[[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]], the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] at the gate of [[Canossa Castle]] in 1077, during the [[Investiture controversy]].|alt=image of painting of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, at the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077]]
The [[Investiture controversy]] began in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1078. Specifically a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Pope Gregory VII]] (1073-1085) concerning who would appoint, [[investiture|''invest'']], bishops, it was more generally, a conflict between king and pope over control of the church.{{sfn|Garrett|1987|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=51}}{{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp=176–182}}{{sfn|Dowley|2018|p=159}} The Church had become committed to the doctrine of papal supremacy by the end of the ninth century, but it wasn't until the eleventh century that Gregory recorded a series of formal statements strongly asserting papal supremacy saying the church could no longer be treated as servant to the state. {{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp=177-178}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2009|pp=324, 374}}{{sfn|Althoff|2019a|p=199}} 

Ending lay investiture would undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the ambitions of the [[European nobility]], but allowing lay investiture to continue meant the Pope's authority over his own people was almost non-existent.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=51–52}}{{refn|group=note|Bishoprics being merely lifetime appointments, a king could better control their powers and revenues than those of hereditary noblemen. Even better, he could leave the post vacant and collect the revenues, theoretically in trust for the new bishop, or give a bishopric to pay a helpful noble.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=51–52}} The Roman Catholic Church wanted to end lay investiture to end this and other abuses, to reform the episcopate and provide better [[pastoral care]] and separation of church and state.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=25}} Pope Gregory VII issued the ''[[Dictatus Papae]]'', which declared that the pope alone could appoint bishops.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=25}} Henry IV's rejection of the decree led to his [[Excommunication (Catholic Church)|excommunication]] and a ducal revolt. Eventually, Henry IV received absolution after a [[Road to Canossa|dramatic public penance]], though the [[Saxon revolt of 1077–1088|Great Saxon Revolt]] and conflict of investiture continued.{{sfn|Garrett|1987|p=8}}}} Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy.{{sfn|Althoff|2019b|p=175}} Before this, kings had been largely exempt from the requirement of obedience to the Pope because they occupied a special position of their own based on [[Divine right of kings|divine right]].{{sfn|Althoff|2019a|p=191}}  

It took "five decades of excommunications, denunciations and mutual depositions...spanning the reign of two emperors and six popes" only to end inconclusively in 1122.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=52}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2009|p=375}} A similar controversy occurred in England.{{sfn|Vaughn|1980|pp=61–86}}
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