Soul

===Shamanism===
{{See also|Soul dualism}}
[[File:Manunggul Jar.jpg|thumb|The [[Neolithic]] [[Manunggul Jar|Manunggul burial jar]] from the [[Tabon Caves]], [[Palawan]], [[Philippines]], depicts a soul and a [[psychopomp]] journeying to the spirit world in a boat ({{circa}} 890–710 [[BCE]]).]]
[[Soul dualism]] (also called "multiple souls" or "dualistic pluralism") is a common belief in [[Shamanism]],<ref name="Sumegi">{{cite book |last1=Sumegi |first1=Angela |title=Dreamworlds of Shamanism and Tibetan Buddhism: The Third Place |date=2008 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9780791478264 |page=16 |url=https://www.academia.edu/20048672 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Bock">{{cite thesis |last=Bock |first=Nona J.T. |date= 2005|title=Shamanic techniques: their use and effectiveness in the practice of psychotherapy |type=MSc |publisher= University of Wisconsin-Stout |url= http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2005/2005bockn.pdf}}</ref><ref name="jackson"/> and is essential in the universal and central concept of "soul flight" (also called "soul journey", "[[out-of-body experience]]", "[[Religious ecstasy|ecstasy]]", or "[[astral projection]]").<ref name="Hoppal2007">{{cite book |last1=Hoppál |first1=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions |date=2007 |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó]] |location=Budapest |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |pages=17–26}}</ref><ref name="jackson">{{cite book|first1=Ulf|last1=Drobin|editor1-first=Peter|editor1-last=Jackson|title =Horizons of Shamanism|chapter =Introduction|publisher =Stockholm University Press|year =2016|pages=xiv-xvii|isbn =978-91-7635-024-9|url =https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/32054/619233.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref><ref name="Winkelman2"/><ref name="Winkelman"/><ref name=Hop-Nat/> It is the belief that humans have two or more souls, generally termed the "body soul" (or "life soul") and the "free soul". The former is linked to bodily functions and awareness when awake, while the latter can freely wander during sleep or trance states.<ref name="Bock"/><ref name="Winkelman2">{{cite book|first1=Michael James|last1=Winkelman|editor1-first=Kasumi-Clements|editor1-last=Niki |title =Religion: Mental Religion|chapter =Shamanism and the Brain|publisher =Macmillan Reference USA|year =2016|pages=355–372|isbn =9780028663609|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323547873}}</ref><ref name="Winkelman">{{cite journal |last1=Winkelman |first1=Michael |title=Shamanic universals and evolutionary psychology |journal=Journal of Ritual Studies |date=2002 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=63–76 |jstor=44364143 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44364143}}</ref><ref name=Hop-Nat>{{cite web |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm |title=Nature worship in Siberian shamanism}}</ref><ref name=EncBr-GrBas>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Great Basin Indian |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=March 28, 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-57681 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In some cases, there are a plethora of soul types with different functions.<ref name="Merkur"/><ref name=Kul-ConSl>{{cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hing.htm |title=Conceptions of soul in old-Estonian religion |volume=4 |last=Kulmar |first=Tarmo |author-link=:et:Tarmo Kulmar}}</ref>

Soul dualism and multiple souls are prominent in the traditional animistic beliefs of the [[Austronesian peoples]],<ref name="tan">{{cite book |first=Michael L. |last=Tan |title=Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |year=2008 |isbn=9789715425704 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EktzHrfup1UC}}</ref><ref name="sather2018">{{cite book |author=Clifford Sather |editor=James J. Fox |title=Expressions of Austronesian Thought and Emotions |chapter=A work of love: Awareness and expressions of emotion in a Borneo healing ritual |publisher=ANU Press |year =2018 |pages=57–63 |isbn=9781760461928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAxfDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> the [[Hun and po|Chinese]] people ([[Hun and po|''hún'' and ''pò'']]),<ref name="Harrell">{{cite journal |last1=Harrell |first1=Stevan |title=The Concept of Soul in Chinese Folk Religion |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |date=1979 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=519–528 |doi=10.2307/2053785|jstor=2053785 |s2cid=162507447 |doi-access=free }}</ref> the [[Tibetan people]],<ref name="Sumegi"/> most [[Ethnic groups of Africa|African]] peoples,<ref name="McClelland"/> most [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas#North America|Native North Americans]],<ref name="McClelland">{{cite book |last1=McClelland |first1=Norman C. |title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |date=2010 |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |isbn=978-0-7864-4851-7 |pages=251, 258}}</ref><ref name="Merkur">{{cite book |last1=Merkur |first1=Daniel |title=Becoming Half Hidden / Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit |date=1985 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-22-00752-0 |pages=61, 222–223, 226, 240}}</ref> ancient [[South Asia]]n peoples,<ref name="jackson"/> Northern [[Eurasia]]n peoples,<ref name=Hop-Nat/><ref name="Hoppál">{{cite book |last1=Hoppál |first1=Mihály |title=Sámánok. Lelkek és jelképek ["Shamans / Souls and symbols"] |date=1994 |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location=Budapest |isbn=963-208-298-2 |page=225}}</ref> and in [[Ancient Egyptians]] (the [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|''ka'' and ''ba'']]).<ref name="McClelland"/>

The belief in soul dualism is found throughout most [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] [[shamanistic]] traditions. The reconstructed [[Proto-Austronesian]] word for the "body soul" is ''*nawa'' ("breath", "life", or "vital spirit"). It is located somewhere in the [[abdominal cavity]], often in the [[liver]] or the [[heart]] (Proto-Austronesian ''*qaCay'').<ref name="tan"/><ref name="sather2018"/> The "free soul" is located in the head. Its names are usually derived from Proto-Austronesian ''*qaNiCu'' ("ghost", "spirit [of the dead]"), which also apply to other non-human nature spirits. The "free soul" is also referred to in names that literally mean "twin" or "double", from Proto-Austronesian ''*duSa'' ("two").<ref name="yu2000">{{cite book |first=Jose Vidamor B. |last=Yu |title=Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality |volume=3 |publisher=Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |year =2000 |pages=148–149 |isbn=9788876528484 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C}}</ref><ref name="duSa">{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Robert Blust |author1-link=Robert Blust |author2=Stephen Trussel |dictionary=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |entry=*du |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_d.htm#30339 |access-date=7 July 2018}}</ref> A virtuous person is said to be one whose souls are in harmony with each other, while an evil person is one whose souls are in conflict.<ref name="mercado1991">{{cite journal |author=Leonardo N. Mercado |year=1991 |title=Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=287–302 |jstor=42633258}}</ref>

The "free soul" is said to leave the body and journey to the [[Spirit world (spiritualism)|spirit world]] during sleep, [[trance|trance-like states]], [[delirium]], [[insanity]], and death. The duality is also seen in the healing traditions of Austronesian shamans, where illnesses are regarded as a "[[soul loss]]" and thus to heal the sick, one must "return" the "free soul" (which may have been stolen by an evil spirit or got lost in the spirit world) into the body. If the "free soul" can not be returned, the afflicted person dies or goes permanently insane.<ref name="salazar">{{cite journal |author=Zeus A. Salazar |author-link=Zeus A. Salazar |year=2007 |title=Faith healing in the Philippines: An historical perspective |journal=Asian Studies |volume=43 |issue=2v |pages=1–15 |url=http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-43-02-2007/Faith%20Healing%20in%20the%20Philippines%20Zeus%20Salazar.pdf}}</ref>

In some ethnic groups, there can also be more than two souls. Like among the [[Tagbanwa people]], where a person is said to have six souls – the "free soul" (which is regarded as the "true" soul) and five secondary souls with various functions.<ref name="tan"/>

Several [[Inuit]] groups believe that a person has more than one type of soul. One is associated with respiration, the other can accompany the body as a shadow.{{sfn|Kleivan|Sonne|1985|pp=17–18}} In some cases, it is connected to [[Inuit religion|shamanistic beliefs among the various Inuit groups]].<ref name="Merkur"/> Also [[Caribou Inuit]] groups believed in several types of souls.{{sfn|Gabus|1970|p=211}}

The [[shaman]] heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.