Selma to Montgomery marches

==March to Montgomery==
[[Image:SelmaHeschelMarch.jpg|thumb|The third Selma Civil Rights March frontline. From far left: [[John Lewis]], an unidentified nun, [[Ralph Abernathy]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Ralph Bunche]], [[Abraham Joshua Heschel|Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel]], [[Frederick Douglas Reese]]. Second row: [[Joseph Ellwanger]] is standing behind the nun; between King and Bunche is [[Maurice Davis (rabbi)|Rabbi Maurice Davis]]. Heschel later wrote, "When I marched in Selma, my feet were praying."]]

A week after Reeb's death, on Wednesday March 17, Judge Johnson ruled in favor of the protesters, saying their [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] right to march in protest could not be abridged by the state of Alabama:

<blockquote>The law is clear that the [[right to petition]] one's government for the redress of grievances may be exercised in large groups . ... These rights may ... be exercised by marching, even along public highways.<ref>''Williams v. Wallace'', 240 F. Supp. 100, 106 (M.D. Ala. 1960).</ref></blockquote>

Judge Johnson had sympathized with the protesters for some days, but had withheld his order until he received an iron-clad commitment of enforcement from the White House. President Johnson had avoided such a commitment in sensitivity to the power of the [[state's rights]] movement, and attempted to cajole Governor Wallace into protecting the marchers himself, or at least giving the president permission to send troops. Finally, seeing that Wallace had no intention of doing either, the president gave his commitment to Judge Johnson on the morning of March 17, and the judge issued his order the same day.<ref>Gary May, ''Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy'' (Basic Books, 2013), pp. 127–128.</ref> To ensure that this march would not be as unsuccessful as the first two marches were, the president federalized the Alabama National Guard on March 20 to escort the march from Selma.<ref name="califanoselma">[http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/selma-mont.shtm From Selma to Montgomery] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20150423174448/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/selma-mont.shtm|date=April 23, 2015}} LBJ Presidential Library. Retrieved April 23, 2015.</ref><ref>Dallek, Robert (1998). [https://archive.org/details/flawedgiantlyndo00dall/page/215 <!-- quote=lyndon, federal troops, selma. --> ''Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973'']. Oxford University Press, p. 218.</ref> The ground operation was supervised by Deputy U.S. Attorney General [[Ramsey Clark]].<ref>Gary May, ''Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy'' (Basic Books, 2013), p. 130.</ref> He also sent Joseph A. Califano Jr., who at the time served as Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense, to outline the progress of the march.<ref name=califanoselma/> In a series of letters, Califano reported on the march at regular intervals for the four days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/selma-mont.shtm |title=LBJ Library and Museum – Selma to Montgomery |access-date=2015-04-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150423174448/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/selma-mont.shtm |archive-date=April 23, 2015 |df=mdy-all }} – Califano Reports.</ref>

On Sunday, March 21, close to 8,000 people assembled at Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church to commence the trek to Montgomery.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/semo Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail] – National Park Service.</ref> Most of the participants were black, but some were white and some were Asian and Latino. Spiritual leaders of multiple races, religions, and creeds marched abreast with Dr. King, including Rev. [[Fred Shuttlesworth]], Greek Orthodox [[Archbishop Iakovos of America|Archbishop Iakovos]], Rabbis [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] and [[Maurice Davis (rabbi)|Maurice Davis]], and at least one [[nun]], all of whom were depicted in a photo that has become famous.<ref name="The March to Montgomery"/> The Dutch [[Catholic]] priest [[Henri Nouwen]] joined the march on March 24.<ref>Nouwen, Henri (2008). ''The Road to Peace'', pp. 84–85. Orbis, New York. {{ISBN|1570751927}}.</ref>

In 1965, the road to Montgomery was four lanes wide going east from Selma, then narrowed to two lanes through [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes County]], and widened to four lanes again at the Montgomery county border. Under the terms of Judge Johnson's order, the march was limited to no more than 300 participants for the two days they were on the two-lane portion of US 80. At the end of the first day, most of the marchers returned to Selma by bus and car, leaving 300 to camp overnight and take up the journey the next day.

On March 22 and 23, 300 protesters marched through chilling rain across Lowndes County, camping at three sites in muddy fields. At the time of the march, the population of Lowndes County was 81% black and 19% white, but not a single black was registered to vote.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cobb |first=Charles E. |title=On the Road to Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/onroadtofreedomg00cobb |url-access=registration |publisher=Algonquin Books |year=2008|isbn=978-1565124394 }}</ref> There were 2,240 whites registered to vote in Lowndes County,<ref>https://libraries.ucsd.edu/farmworkermovement/ufwarchives/sncc/13-June_1966.pdf {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref> a figure that represented 118% of the adult white population (in many Southern counties of that era it was common practice to retain white voters on the rolls after they died or moved away). On March 23, Hundreds of black marchers wore [[Kippah|''kippot'']], Jewish skullcaps, to emulate the marching rabbis, as [[Abraham Joshua Heschel|Heschel]] was marching at the front of the crowd. The marchers called the ''kippot'' "freedom caps."<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=March 23, 1965 |title=Negro Marchers from Selma Wear 'Yarmulkes' in Deference to Rabbis |url=https://www.jta.org/1965/03/23/archive/negro-marchers-from-selma-wear-yarmulkes-in-deference-to-rabbis |agency=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] |access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref>

<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Selma montgomery marcher.jpg|thumb|alt=A native [[Selmian]] expresses her desire for change.|A native [[Selmian]] expresses her desire for change.]] -->On the morning of March 24, the march crossed into Montgomery County and the highway widened again to four lanes. All day as the march approached the city, additional marchers were ferried by bus and car to join the line. By evening, several thousand marchers had reached the final campsite at the [[City of St. Jude]], a complex on the outskirts of Montgomery.

That night on a makeshift stage, a "Stars for Freedom" rally was held, with singers [[Harry Belafonte]], [[Tony Bennett]], [[Frankie Laine]], [[Peter, Paul and Mary]], [[Sammy Davis Jr.]], [[Joan Baez]], [[Nina Simone]], and [[The Chad Mitchell Trio]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Doug |date=January 18, 2015 |title=King letter of thanks hangs on his wall |url=http://m.spokesman.com/stories/2015/jan/18/doug-clark-king-letter-of-thanks-hangs-on-his-wall/ |newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, WA |access-date=June 7, 2015 |archive-date=July 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729163359/http://m.spokesman.com/stories/2015/jan/18/doug-clark-king-letter-of-thanks-hangs-on-his-wall/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> all performing.<ref>{{cite news |title=City of St. Jude is just wild about Harry |first=Mike |last=Tankersley |url=http://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/article/20120325/NEWS01/303250031 |newspaper=[[Montgomery Advertiser]] |date=March 25, 2012 |access-date=June 11, 2013 |archive-date=September 13, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913194849/http://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/article/20120325/NEWS01/303250031 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thousands more people continued to join the march.

On Thursday, March 25, 25,000 people marched from St. Jude to the steps of the [[Alabama State Capitol|State Capitol Building]] where King delivered the speech "[[How Long, Not Long]]". He said:

<blockquote>The end we seek is a society at peace with itself, a society that can live with its conscience. ... I know you are asking today, How long will it take? I come to say to you this afternoon however difficult the moment, however frustrating the hour, it will not be long.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/selma_montgomery.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122214150/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/selma_montgomery.htm|title=Selma to Montgomery March|archive-date=January 22, 2009}}</ref></blockquote>

After delivering the speech, King and the marchers approached the entrance to the capitol with a petition for Governor Wallace. A line of state troopers blocked the door. One announced that the governor was not in. Undeterred, the marchers remained at the entrance until one of Wallace's secretaries appeared and took the petition.<ref>Mallon, Jack (March 6, 2015). [http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/king-demonstrators-reach-montgomery-selma-1965-article-1.2137302 "Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and demonstrators reach Montgomery from Selma in 1965"]. ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]'' (New York).</ref>

Later that night, [[Viola Liuzzo]], a white mother of five from Detroit who had come to Alabama to support voting rights for blacks, was assassinated by [[Ku Klux Klan]] members while she was ferrying marchers back to Selma from Montgomery. Among the Klansmen in the car from which the shots were fired was FBI informant [[Gary Thomas Rowe Jr.|Gary Rowe]]. Afterward, the FBI's [[COINTELPRO]] operation spread false rumors that Liuzzo was a member of the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]] and had abandoned her children to have sexual relationships with African-American activists.<ref>Mary Stanton, ''From Selma to Sorrow: The Life and Death of Viola Liuzzo''. University of Georgia Press, 2000.</ref>

[[File:Selma to Montgomery.svg|thumb|center|800px|Map showing Selma to Montgomery march route in March 1965]]

===Response to the third march ===
The third Selma march received national and international coverage. It was reported that it publicized the marchers' message without harassment by police and segregation supporters. Gaining more widespread support from other civil rights organizations in the area, this third march was considered an overall success, with greater degree of influence on the public. Subsequently, voter registration drives were organized in black-majority areas across the South, but it took time to get the target population to sign up.

U.S. Representative [[William Louis Dickinson]] made two speeches to Congress on March 30 and April 27, saying that there was [[alcohol abuse]], [[bribery]], and widespread sexual license among the marchers. Religious leaders present at the marches denied the allegations, and local and national journalists found no grounds for his accounts. The allegations of segregation supporters were collected in Robert M. Mikell's pro-segregationist book ''Selma'' (Charlotte, 1965).<ref>Jane Daily, [https://www.umass.edu/legal/Hilbink/250/Jane%20Dailey%20-%20Sex,%20Segregation,%20and%20the%20Sacred%20after%20Brown.pdf "Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown"], ''The Journal of American History'' 91.1. Note: Mikkel's book was published with a colorized cover photograph showing splotches of blood drawn on an image of Viola Liuzzo's car.</ref>

===Hammermill boycott===
During 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. was promoting an economic boycott of Alabama products to put pressure on the State to integrate schools and employment.<ref>Fredrick, [https://books.google.com/books?id=jsEDAAAAMBAJ&q=Hammermill_Paper_Boycott&pg=PA46 ''Stand Up for Alabama''], p. 126.</ref> In an action under development for some time, the [[Hammermill Paper Company]] announced the opening of a major plant in Selma, Alabama; this came during the height of violence in early 1965.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2211&dat=19651211&id=0-QmAAAAIBAJ&pg=6603,5548256|title=The Afro American |via= Google News Archive Search|website=news.google.com}}</ref> On February 4, 1965, the company announced plans for construction of a $35 million plant, allegedly touting the "fine reports the company had received about the character of the community and its people".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.crmvet.org/docs/sv/sv650326.pdf|title=Student Voice.}}</ref>

On March 26, 1965, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee called for a national boycott of Hammermill paper products, until the company reversed what SNCC described as racist policies. The SCLC joined in support of the boycott.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsEDAAAAMBAJ&q=Hammermill_Paper_Boycott&pg=PA46 Negro Boycott of Hammermill]. ''Jet'', May 27, 1965.</ref> In cooperation with SCLC, student members of [[Oberlin College]] Action for Civil Rights,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/DAddarioHonors/DAddarioHonors-ch1.htm|title=Chapter I: The Activist Consensus |website=www2.oberlin.edu}}</ref> joined with SCLC members to conduct picketing and a sit-in at Hammermill's [[Erie, Pennsylvania]] headquarters. White activist and preacher [[Robert W. Spike]] called Hammermill's decision as "an affront not only to 20 million American Negroes, but also to all citizens of goodwill in this country." He also criticized Hammermill executives directly, stating: "For the board chairman of one of America's largest paper manufacturers to sit side by side with Governor Wallace of Alabama and say that Selma is fine ... is either the height of naiveté or the depth of racism."<ref name="From Erie to Selma">[https://www.eriereader.com/article/from-erie-to-selma-in-1965 From Erie to Selma]. ''Erie Reader'', May 20, 2020.</ref>

The company called a meeting of the corporate leadership, SCLC's C. T. Vivian, and Oberlin student leadership. Their discussions led to Hammermill executives signing an agreement to support integration in Alabama.<ref>[http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/Hammermill.html ''The Best Known Name in Paper, Hammermill''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515215831/http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/Hammermill.html |date=May 15, 2013 }}, Pennsylvania State University.</ref> The agreement also required Hammermill to commit to equal pay for black and white workers. During these negotiations, around 50 police officers arrived outside of the Erie headquarters and arrested 65 activists, charging them with obstruction of an officer.<ref name="From Erie to Selma"/>