Renaissance Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Spread== In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the [[printing press]] by German printer [[Johannes Gutenberg]] allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements. [[File:Cobbe portrait of Shakespeare.jpg|thumb|"What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!" – from [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''.]] ===England=== {{main|English Renaissance}} The [[Elizabethan era]] in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance. Many scholars see its beginnings in the early 16th century during the reign of [[Henry VIII]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Poetry |date=16 January 2024 |title=The English Renaissance |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/154826/an-introduction-to-the-english-renaissance |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=Poetry Foundation |language=en}}</ref> The English Renaissance is different from the [[Italian Renaissance]] in several ways. The dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were [[literature]] and [[music]], which had a rich flowering.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Best |first=Michael |title=Art in England: Life and Times - Internet Shakespeare Editions |url=https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/literature/art/england.html |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=internetshakespeare.uvic.ca}}</ref> [[Visual arts]] in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English Renaissance period in art began far later than the Italian, which had moved into [[Mannerism]] by the 1530s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Art in Renaissance England |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0512.xml |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref> In literature the later part of the 16th century saw the flowering of [[Elizabethan literature]], with poetry heavily influenced by [[Italian Renaissance literature]] but [[Elizabethan theatre]] a distinctive native style. Writers include [[William Shakespeare]] (1564–1616), [[Christopher Marlowe]] (1564–1593), [[Edmund Spenser]] (1552–599), Sir [[Thomas More]] (1478–1535), and Sir [[Philip Sidney]] (1554–1586). [[English Renaissance music]] competed with that in Europe with composers such as [[Thomas Tallis]] (1505–1585), [[John Taverner]] (1490–1545), and [[William Byrd]] (1540–1623). [[Elizabethan architecture]] produced the large [[prodigy house]]s of courtiers, and in the next century [[Inigo Jones]] (1573–1652), who introduced Italianate architecture to England.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A Brief History of Architecture in Britain |url=https://cdn.southampton.ac.uk/assets/imported/transforms/content-block/UsefulDownloads_Download/1358E11C695C4670BC764FA5CAB2EEFE/Architecture%20of%20London%20Preparatory%20Materials.pdf |journal=University of Southampton}}</ref> Elsewhere, Sir [[Francis Bacon]] (1561–1626) was the pioneer of modern scientific thought, and is commonly regarded as one of the founders of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-Scientific-Revolution/ |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=Historic UK |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Klein |first=Jürgen |title=Francis Bacon |date=2012 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/francis-bacon/ |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022212025/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/francis-bacon/ |url-status=live |edition=Winter 2016 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |archive-date=22 October 2019 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> ===France=== {{main|French Renaissance|French Renaissance architecture}} [[File:Chateau de chambord.jpg|thumb|left|[[Château de Chambord]] (1519–1547), one of the most famous examples of [[Renaissance architecture]]]] The word "Renaissance" is borrowed from the French language, where it means "re-birth". It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French [[historian]] [[Jules Michelet]] (1798–1874) in his 1855 work, ''Histoire de France'' (History of France).<ref name="Michelet, Jules 1847">Michelet, Jules. ''History of France'', trans. G.H. Smith (New York: D. Appleton, 1847)</ref><ref name="Cronin2011">{{cite book|author=Vincent Cronin|title=The Florentine Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU8z-Sge6WgC|year= 2011|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1446466544}}</ref> In 1495 the [[Italian Renaissance]] arrived in France, imported by King [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the [[Black Death]]. [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] imported Italian art and artists, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]], and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as [[François Rabelais]], [[Pierre de Ronsard]], [[Joachim du Bellay]], and [[Michel de Montaigne]], painters such as [[Jean Clouet]], and musicians such as [[Jean Mouton]] also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance. In 1533, a fourteen-year-old [[Catherine de' Medici|Caterina de' Medici]] (1519–1589), born in Florence to [[Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino]] and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married [[Henry II of France]], second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences, and music (including the origins of [[ballet]]) to the French court from her native Florence. ===Germany=== {{main|German Renaissance|Weser Renaissance}} [[File:Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I]]'', by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1519]] In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to [[Germany]] and the [[Low Countries]], where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and Renaissance artists such as [[Albrecht Dürer]] (1471–1528) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country [[Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe|humanism]] became closely linked to the turmoil of the Reformation, and the art and writing of the [[German Renaissance]] frequently reflected this dispute.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=560776|year=1965|title=The Religious Renaissance of the German Humanists |author=Strauss, Gerald|journal=English Historical Review|volume=80|issue=314|pages=156–157|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXX.CCCXIV.156}}</ref> However, the [[Gothic style]] and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] of [[Habsburg]] (ruling 1493–1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. ===Hungarian trecento and quattrocento=== {{further|Renaissance architecture in Central and Eastern Europe}} After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the Renaissance appeared.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis A. Waldman|author2=Péter Farbaky|author3=Louis Alexander Waldman|title=Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Villa I Tatti|isbn=978-0674063464}}</ref> The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the [[Quattrocento]] (1400s) to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships — not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations{{snd}}growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason{{snd}}exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large-scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, the castles of Visegrád, Tata, and Várpalota. In Sigismund's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hungary.<ref>''Hungary'' (4th ed.) Authors: Zoltán Halász / András Balla (photo) / Zsuzsa Béres (translation) Published by Corvina, in 1998 {{ISBN|9631341291|9631347273}}</ref> The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the [[Florence|Florentine]] humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to [[Buda]], helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them [[Vitéz János]], archbishop of [[Esztergom]], one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm |title=the influences of the florentine renaissance in hungary |publisher=Fondazione-delbianco.org |access-date=31 July 2009 |archive-date=21 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321190654/http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/relaz00_01/mester.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> During the long reign of emperor [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] the [[Buda Castle|Royal Castle of Buda]] became probably the largest [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] palace of the late [[Middle Ages]]. King [[Matthias Corvinus]] (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.<ref>History section: Miklós Horler: Budapest műemlékei I, Bp: 1955, pp. 259–307</ref><ref>Post-war reconstruction: László Gerő: A helyreállított budai vár, Bp, 1980, pp. 11–60.</ref> After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to [[Beatrice of Naples]], [[Buda]] became one of the most important artistic centers of the Renaissance north of the [[Alps]].<ref name="czigany">Czigány, Lóránt, ''A History of Hungarian Literature'', "[http://mek.oszk.hu/02000/02042/html/5.html The Renaissance in Hungary]" (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were [[Antonio Bonfini]] and the famous Hungarian poet [[Janus Pannonius]].<ref name="czigany" /> [[András Hess]] set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, the [[Bibliotheca Corviniana]], was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the [[Vatican Library]]. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)<ref>Marcus Tanner, The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and the Fate of his Lost Library (New Haven: Yale U.P., 2008)</ref> In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051105150132/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D15976%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html Documentary heritage concerning Hungary and recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World International Register]. portal.unesco.org</ref> Matthias started at least two major building projects.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|pp=177, 180–181}} The works in Buda and [[Visegrád]] began in about 1479.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}} Two new wings and a [[hanging garden]] were built at the royal castle of Buda, and the palace at Visegrád was rebuilt in Renaissance style.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}}{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|pp=180–181}} Matthias appointed the Italian [[Chimenti Camicia]] and the Dalmatian [[Giovanni Dalmata]] to direct these projects. {{sfn|Engel|2001|p=319}} Matthias commissioned the leading Italian artists of his age to embellish his palaces: for instance, the sculptor [[Benedetto da Majano]] and the painters [[Filippino Lippi]] and [[Andrea Mantegna]] worked for him.{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|pp=171–172}} A copy of Mantegna's portrait of Matthias survived.{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|p=172}} Matthias also hired the Italian military engineer [[Aristotele Fioravanti]] to direct the rebuilding of the forts along the southern frontier.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|p=181}} He had new monasteries built in [[Gothic architecture|Late Gothic]] style for the [[Franciscans]] in Kolozsvár, [[Szeged]] and Hunyad, and for the [[Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit|Paulines]] in Fejéregyháza.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=168}}{{sfn|Kubinyi|2008|p=183}} In the spring of 1485, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] travelled to [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1538)|Hungary]] on behalf of Sforza to meet king Matthias Corvinus, and was commissioned by him to paint a [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]].<ref>{{interlanguage link|Franz-Joachim Verspohl|de}}, ''Michelangelo Buonarroti und Leonardo Da Vinci: Republikanischer Alltag und Künstlerkonkurrenz in Florenz zwischen 1501 und 1505'' (Wallstein Verlag, 2007), p. 151.</ref> Matthias enjoyed the company of Humanists and had lively discussions on various topics with them.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=166}} The fame of his magnanimity encouraged many scholars{{mdash}}mostly Italian{{mdash}}to settle in Buda.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=67}} Antonio Bonfini, [[Pietro Ranzano]], Bartolomeo Fonzio, and [[Francesco Bandini]] spent many years in Matthias's court.{{sfn|E. Kovács|1990|p=185}}{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=166}} This circle of educated men introduced the ideas of [[Neoplatonism]] to Hungary.{{sfn|Klaniczay|1992|p=167}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=321}} Like all intellectuals of his age, Matthias was convinced that the movements and combinations of the stars and planets exercised influence on individuals' life and on the history of nations.{{sfn|Hendrix|2013|p=59}} Galeotto Marzio described him as "king and astrologer", and Antonio Bonfini said Matthias "never did anything without consulting the stars".{{sfn|Hendrix|2013|pp=63, 65}} Upon his request, the famous astronomers of the age, [[Johannes Regiomontanus]] and [[Marcin Bylica]], set up an observatory in Buda and installed it with [[astrolabe]]s and [[celestial globe]]s.{{sfn|Tanner|2009|p=99}} Regiomontanus dedicated his book on navigation that was used by [[Christopher Columbus]] to Matthias.{{sfn|Cartledge|2011|p=67}} Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include [[Bálint Balassi]] (poet), [[Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos]] (poet), [[Bálint Bakfark]] (composer and lutenist), and [[Master MS]] (fresco painter). ===Renaissance in the Low Countries=== {{main|Renaissance in the Netherlands|Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting}} [[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Erasmus of Rotterdam]] in 1523, as depicted by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]]] Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via [[Bruges]], which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe.<ref name="Heughebaert">{{cite book | last=Heughebaert | first=H. |author2=Defoort, A. |author3=Van Der Donck, R. | year=1998 | title=Artistieke opvoeding | publisher=Den Gulden Engel bvba. | location=Wommelgem, Belgium | isbn=978-9050352222}}</ref> In science, the [[Anatomy|anatomist]] [[Andreas Vesalius]] led the way; in [[cartography]], [[Gerardus Mercator]]'s map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, [[Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting]] ranged from the strange work of [[Hieronymus Bosch]]<ref name="Janson">{{cite book | last = Janson | first = H.W. |author2=Janson, Anthony F. | year = 1997 | title = History of Art | edition = 5th, rev. | publisher = [[Harry N. Abrams, Inc.]] | location = New York | url = http://www.abramsbooks.com | isbn = 978-0810934429}}</ref> to the everyday life depictions of [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]].<ref name="Heughebaert"/> Erasmus was arguably the [[Netherlands]]' best known humanist and Catholic intellectual during the Renaissance.<ref name=":02" /> ===Northern Europe=== {{main|Northern Renaissance}} The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance". While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in [[Renaissance music|music]].<ref name="musical-quarterly">{{cite journal|author=Láng, Paul Henry|jstor=738699|title=The So Called Netherlands Schools|journal=The Musical Quarterly|volume=25|issue= 1|year=1939|pages=48–59|doi=10.1093/mq/xxv.1.48}}</ref> The music of the 15th-century [[Burgundian School]] defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the [[polyphony]] of the [[Franco-Flemish School|Netherlanders]], as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in [[music]] since the standardization of [[Gregorian Chant]] in the 9th century.<ref name="musical-quarterly" /> The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian [[composer]] [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]]. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the [[Venetian School (music)|Venetian School]], which spread northward into Germany around 1600. In [[Denmark]], the Renaissance sparked the translation of the works of [[Saxo Grammaticus]] into [[Danish Realm|Danish]] as well as [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]] and [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] ordering the redecoration or construction of several important works of architecture, i.e. [[Kronborg]], [[Rosenborg Castle|Rosenborg]] and [[Børsen]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Renæssance i Europa og Danmark |url=https://natmus.dk/historisk-viden/danmark/renaessance-1536-1660/renaessance-i-europa-og-danmark/ |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Nationalmuseet |language=da}}</ref> Danish astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] greatly contributed to turn astronomy into the first [[modern science]] and also helped launch the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/883146361 |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |edition=First U.S. |location=New York, NY |oclc=883146361}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/tycho-brahe-1546-1601 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref> The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by [[Albrecht Dürer]]. Later, the works of [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder|Pieter Bruegel]] influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that [[Flemish Primitives|Flemish]] brothers [[Hubert van Eyck|Hubert]] and [[Jan van Eyck]] perfected the [[oil painting]] technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries.<ref>''[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hd_optg.htm Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to Southern Europe]'', [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] website. (Retrieved 5 April 2007)</ref> A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of [[Dante Alighieri]] on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin.<ref>Celenza, Christopher (2004), ''The Lost Italian Renaissance: Humanists, Historians, and Latin's Legacy''. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press</ref> The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing. ===Poland=== {{main|Renaissance in Poland}} {{multiple image | width1 = 125 | width2 = 150 | image1 = Wawel-kaplica1.jpg | alt1 = Sigismund Chapel | image2 = Nagrobek Zygmunta Starego i Zygmunta Augusta.jpg | alt2 = Tombstone | footer = A 16th-century Renaissance tombstone of Polish kings within the [[Sigismund Chapel]] in [[Kraków]], Poland. The golden-domed chapel was designed by [[Bartolommeo Berrecci]]. }} An early Italian humanist who came to [[Poland]] in the mid-15th century was [[Filippo Buonaccorsi]]. Many Italian artists came to Poland with [[Bona Sforza]] of Milan, when she married King [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I]] in 1518.<ref>[http://en.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,%281494,%E2%80%93,1557%29,1958.html Bona Sforza (1494–1557)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506203103/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Bona,Sforza,(1494,%E2%80%93,1557),1958.html |date=6 May 2014 }}. poland.gov.pl (Retrieved 4 April 2007)</ref> This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities.<ref>For example, the re-establishment of [[Jagiellonian University]] in 1364. {{Cite web |last=Waltos |first=Stanisław |date=31 October 2002 |title=The Past and the Present |url=http://www.uj.edu.pl/dispatch.jsp?item=uniwersytet/historia/historiatxt.jsp&lang=en#narodziny |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021120144715/http://www.uj.edu.pl/dispatch.jsp?item=uniwersytet%2Fhistoria%2Fhistoriatxt.jsp&lang=en |archive-date=20 November 2002 |website=Uniwersytet Jagielloński}}</ref> The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the [[Polish Golden Age|Golden Age]] of [[Polish culture]]. Ruled by the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]], the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] (from 1569 known as the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars – aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the [[Polish Brethren]]), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (''[[szlachta]]'') who gained dominance in the new political system of [[Golden Liberty]]. The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development. The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former [[Duchy of Pomerania]] is the [[Ducal Castle, Szczecin|Ducal Castle]] in [[Szczecin]]. ===Portugal=== {{main|Portuguese Renaissance}} Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview,<ref name=JCBL>{{cite web |title=Portuguese Overseas Travels and European Readers|url=http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/Portugal/Overseas.html|work=Portugal and Renaissance Europe|publisher=The John Carter Brown Library Exhibitions, Brown University |access-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112175553/http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/Portugal/Overseas.html |archive-date= 12 November 2011 }}</ref> stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, [[Lisbon]] flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including [[Pedro Nunes]], [[João de Castro]], [[Abraham Zacuto]], and [[Martin Behaim]]. Cartographers [[Pedro Reinel]], [[Lopo Homem]], [[Estêvão Gomes]], and [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribeiro]] made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary [[Tomé Pires]] and physicians [[Garcia de Orta]] and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist [[Carolus Clusius]]. [[File:São Pedro (c. 1529) - Grão Vasco (Museu Nacional Grão Vasco).png|thumb|left|''São Pedro Papa'', 1530–1535, by [[Grão Vasco|Grão Vasco Fernandes]]. A pinnacle piece from when the Portuguese Renaissance had considerable external influence.]] In architecture, the huge profits of the [[spice trade]] financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the [[Manueline]], incorporating maritime elements.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Bergin | editor-first=Thomas G. | editor-link=Thomas G. Bergin | editor2-last=Speake | editor2-first=Jennifer | editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0816054510|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOb4hIp7EE8C&pg=PP1}}</ref> The primary painters were [[Nuno Gonçalves]], [[Gregório Lopes]], and [[Vasco Fernandes (artist)|Vasco Fernandes]]. In music, [[Pedro de Escobar]] and [[Duarte Lobo]] produced four songbooks, including the [[Cancioneiro de Elvas]]. In literature, [[Sá de Miranda]] introduced Italian forms of verse. [[Bernardim Ribeiro]] developed [[Pastoral#Pastoral romances|pastoral romance]], plays by [[Gil Vicente]] fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and [[Luís de Camões]] inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem ''[[Os Lusíadas]]''. [[Travel literature]] especially flourished: [[João de Barros]], [[Fernão Lopes de Castanheda|Castanheda]], [[António Galvão]], [[Gaspar Correia]], [[Duarte Barbosa]], and [[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press.<ref name="JCBL"/> After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, [[Amerigo Vespucci]] coined the term [[New World]],<ref name=Bergin>{{cite book|last1=Bergin|last2=Speake |first2=Jennifer |first1=Thomas G.|title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0816054510|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOb4hIp7EE8C&pg=PP490|page=490}}</ref> in his letters to [[Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici]]. The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including [[Francisco de Holanda]], [[André de Resende]], and [[Damião de Góis]], a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]]. [[Diogo de Gouveia|Diogo]] and [[André de Gouveia]] made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] in [[Antwerp]] attracted the interest of Thomas More<ref name=Bietenholz>{{cite book |last1=Bietenholz |first1=Peter G. |last2=Deutscher |first2=Thomas Brian |title=Contemporaries of Erasmus: a biographical register of the Renaissance and Reformation, Volumes 1–3 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0802085771|page=22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hruQ386SfFcC&pg=RA1-PA22}}</ref> and Albrecht Dürer to the wider world.<ref>{{cite book | last=Lach | first=Donald Frederick | year=1994 | title=Asia in the making of Europe: A century of wonder. The literary arts. The scholarly disciplines | publisher=University of Chicago Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhE3sPY78s0C&pg=PA6 | access-date=15 July 2011| isbn=978-0226467337}}</ref> There, profits and know-how helped nurture the [[Dutch Renaissance]] and [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age]], especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal. ===Spain=== {{main|Spanish Renaissance}} {{see also|Spanish Renaissance architecture}} [[File:Vista aerea del Monasterio de El Escorial.jpg|thumb|right|The [[El Escorial|Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial]], by [[Juan de Herrera]] and [[Juan Bautista de Toledo]]]] The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese Crown]] and the city of [[Valencia (city in Spain)|Valencia]]. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the [[Crown of Aragon]], including [[Ausiàs March]] and [[Joanot Martorell]]. In the [[Crown of Castile]], the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as [[Íñigo López de Mendoza, marqués de Santillana|the Marquis of Santillana]], who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as [[Jorge Manrique]], [[Fernando de Rojas]], [[Juan del Encina]], [[Juan Boscán Almogáver]], and [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. [[Miguel de Cervantes]]'s [[masterpiece]] ''[[Don Quixote]]'' is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher [[Juan Luis Vives]], grammarian [[Antonio de Nebrija]] and natural historian [[Pedro Mexía|Pedro de Mexía]]. Later Spanish Renaissance tended toward religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as [[Luis de León]], [[Teresa of Ávila]], and [[John of the Cross]], and treated issues related to the exploration of the [[New World]], with chroniclers and writers such as [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]] and [[Bartolomé de las Casas]], giving rise to a body of work, now known as [[Spanish Renaissance literature]]. The late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as [[El Greco]] and composers such as [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]] and [[Antonio de Cabezón]]. === Further countries === * [[Renaissance in Croatia]] * [[Renaissance in Scotland]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). 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