Racial segregation

==== United States ====
{{Main|Racial segregation in the United States}}
{{Further|African-American history|Racism against African Americans|Racism in the United States|Slavery in the United States|Reconstruction Era|Gilded Age|Black Codes (United States)|Jim Crow laws|Nadir of American race relations|Civil rights movement}}

In the United States, [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] was mandated by law in some states (see [[Jim Crow laws]]) and enforced along with [[anti-miscegenation laws]] (prohibitions against [[interracial marriage]]), until the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] led by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] struck down racial segregation.<ref>E.g., Virginia [[Racial Integrity Act]], Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003223936/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2019 |website=William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref>

[[Jim Crow laws]] were introduced after the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] abolishing [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] in America, [[Racism in the United States|racial discrimination]]. The laws mandated strict segregation of the races. Though many of these laws were passed shortly after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] ended, they only became formalized after the end of the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction era]] in 1877. The period that followed the Reconstruction era is known as the [[nadir of American race relations]]. 

[[File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg|thumb|left|Colored Sailors room in World War I]]

While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in the 1896 ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' case explicitly permitted "[[separate but equal]]" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], in his [[dissenting opinion|dissent]], protested that the decision would "stimulate aggressions ... upon the admitted rights of colored citizens", "arouse race hate", and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between Whites and Blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Eric Foner |last2=Randall Kennedy |date=3 May 2004 |title=Brown at 50 |publisher=The Nation |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy |access-date=18 January 2010}}</ref>

Elected in 1912, President [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson]] tolerated the extension of segregation throughout the federal government that was already underway.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=August Meier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560 |title=The Rise of Segregation in the Federal Bureaucracy, 1900–1930 |last2=Elliott Rudwick |work=Phylon |year=1967 |volume=28 |pages=178–184 |issue=2|publisher=Clark Atlanta University |doi=10.2307/273560 |jstor=273560 }}</ref>  In [[World War I]], Blacks were drafted and served in the [[United States Army]] in [[Military history of African Americans#World War I|segregated units]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mjagkij |first=Nina |url=https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1021967 |title=Loyalty in time of trial: the African American experience during World War I |date=2011 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc |others=ProQuest (Firm) |series=African American history series |location=Lanham, Md |pages=106}}</ref> The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The air force and the marines had no Blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were Blacks in the [[Seabee|Navy Seabees]]. The army had only five African-American officers.<ref name="fonerblack" /> In addition, no African-American would receive the [[Medal of Honor]] during the war, and their tasks in the war were largely reserved to noncombat units. Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to the [[German prisoners of war in the United States|Nazi prisoners of war]].<ref name="fonerblack">{{Cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0393935530 |edition=3 |page=696}}</ref>

A club which was central to the [[Harlem Renaissance]] in the 1920s, the [[Cotton Club]] in [[Harlem]], [[New York City]] was a whites-only establishment, where Blacks (such as [[Duke Ellington]]) were allowed to perform, but they were only allowed to perform in front of a white audience.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ella Fitzgerald |date=1989 |publisher=Holloway House Publishing |page=27}}</ref> In the reception to honor his success at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], [[Jesse Owens]] was not permitted to enter through the main doors of the [[Waldorf Astoria New York]] and instead forced to travel up to the event in a [[freight elevator]].<ref name="schwartz">{{Cite web |last=Schwartz |first=Larry |year=2007 |title=Owens pierced a myth |url=http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016393.html}}</ref> The first black [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] recipient [[Hattie McDaniel]] was not permitted to attend the premiere of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' at [[Loew's Grand Theatre]], [[Atlanta]], because of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia's]] segregation laws, and at the [[12th Academy Awards]] ceremony at the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]] she was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor.<ref name="LA segregation">{{Cite magazine |last=Abramovitch |first=Seth |date=19 February 2015 |title=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A. |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars-first-black-winner-accepted-774335 |magazine=The Hollywood Reporter |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> Her final wish to be buried in [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery|Hollywood Cemetery]] was denied because the graveyard was restricted to Whites only.<ref name="LA segregation" />

On 11 September 1964, [[John Lennon]] announced [[the Beatles]] would not play to a segregated audience in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Florida]].<ref name="Concert" /> City officials relented following this announcement.<ref name="Concert">{{Cite news |title=The Beatles banned segregated audiences, contract shows |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 |access-date=17 July 2017}}</ref>  A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the [[Cow Palace]] in [[California]] specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience".<ref name="Concert" />

[[Sports in the United States|American sports]] were racially segregated until the mid-twentieth century. In [[Baseball in the United States|baseball]], the "[[Negro league baseball|Negro leagues]]" were established by [[Rube Foster]] for non-white players, such as [[Negro league baseball]], which ran through the early 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lanctot |first=Neil |title=Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2008 |page=4}}</ref> In [[Basketball in the United States|basketball]], the [[Black Fives]] (all-black teams) were established in 1904, and emerged in [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Chicago]], [[Pittsburgh]], [[Philadelphia]], and other cities. Racial segregation in basketball lasted until 1950 when the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] became racially integrated.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How 'Black Fives' led to racial integration in basketball |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27215799 |access-date=21 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:We want white tenants.jpg|thumb|left|White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the housing project erected this sign. [[Detroit]], 1942.]]

Many U.S. states banned [[Interracial marriage in the United States|interracial marriage]], with the first [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|anti-miscegenation law]] passed in [[Maryland]] in 1691.<ref>{{cite news |title=Interracial Marriage and the Law |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1965/10/interracial-marriage-and-the-law/660731/ |access-date=September 12, 2023 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref> While opposed to slavery in the U.S., in a speech in [[Charleston, Illinois]], in 1858, [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people. I as much as any man am in favor of the superior position assigned to the white race".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abraham Lincoln |title=Speeches and Writings 1832–1858: Speeches, Letters, and Miscellaneous Writings : the Lincoln-Douglas Debates |publisher=Library of America |year=1989 |volume=1 |page=638}}</ref> In 1958, Mildred Loving, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man, were sentenced to a year in prison in [[Virginia]] for marrying each other.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Dionne |date=10 June 2007 |title=Pioneer of interracial marriage looks back |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-06-10-loving_N.htm |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref> Their marriage violated the state's anti-miscegenation statute, the [[Racial Integrity Act of 1924]], which prohibited marriage between people classified as white and people classified as "[[colored]]" (persons of non-white ancestry).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Racial Integrity Act of 1924 |work=[[s:Racial Integrity Act of 1924|Full Text]] |via=Wikisource}}</ref> When former president [[Harry S. Truman]] was asked by a reporter in 1963 if interracial marriage would become widespread in the U.S., he responded, "I hope not; I don’t believe in it", before asking a question often aimed at anyone advocating racial integration, "Would you want your daughter to marry a Negro? She won't love someone who isn't her color."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wallenstein |first1=Peter |title=Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History |date=2004 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |page=185}}</ref> In the ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' case in 1967, the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawing |first=Charles B. |title=''Loving v. Virginia'' and the Hegemony of "Race" |url=http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704053526/http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2007 |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg|thumb|[[Rosa Parks]] being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person]]

Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice during the [[civil rights movement]] by the efforts of such civil rights activists as [[Clarence M. Mitchell Jr.]], [[Rosa Parks]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[James Farmer]] working for social and political freedom during the period from the end of World War II through the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] desegregation order of 1961, the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] in 1964 and the [[Voting Rights Act]] in 1965 supported by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Many of their efforts were acts of [[Nonviolence|non-violent]] [[civil disobedience]] aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding [[sit-in]]s at all-white [[wikt:diner|diners]].

By 1968, all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] under [[Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]], and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation had dissolved.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Earl Warren, 83, Who Led High Court In Time of Vast Social Change, Is Dead |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0319.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=archive.nytimes.com}}</ref> The [[Warren Court]]'s decision on landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' of [[Topeka, Kansas]] in 1954 outlawed segregation in public schools, and its decision on ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]'' in 1964 prohibits racial segregation and discrimination in public institutions and [[Public accommodations in the United States|public accommodations]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Robert L. |date=1968 |title=The Warren Court and Desegregation |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4901&context=mlr |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=237–248 |doi=10.2307/1287417 |jstor=1287417}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=23 September 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref> The [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968, administered and enforced by the [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]], prohibited discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. Formal racial discrimination became illegal in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil services and the government. However, implicit racism continues to this day through avenues like [[occupational segregation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=ALONSO-VILLAR |first1=OLGA |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |title=The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender |last2=DEL RIO |first2=CORAL |last3=GRADIN |first3=CARLOS |date=April 2012 |journal=Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society |volume=51 |pages=179–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |issue=2 |s2cid=154675302}}</ref> In recent years, there has been a trend that reverses those efforts to desegregate schools made by those mandatory school desegregation orders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fiel |first1=Jeremy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/703044 |title=With all deliberate speed: The reversal of court-ordered school desegregation, 1970–2013. |last2=Zhang |first2=Yongjun |date=2019 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=124 |pages=1685–1719 |doi=10.1086/703044 |hdl=10150/633639 |hdl-access=free |issue=6 |s2cid=195572605}}</ref>