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PreviewAdvancedSpecial charactersHelpHeadingLevel 2Level 3Level 4Level 5FormatInsertLatinLatin extendedIPASymbolsGreekGreek extendedCyrillicArabicArabic extendedHebrewBanglaTamilTeluguSinhalaDevanagariGujaratiThaiLaoKhmerCanadian AboriginalRunesÁáÀàÂâÄäÃãǍǎĀāĂ㥹ÅåĆćĈĉÇçČčĊċĐđĎďÉéÈèÊêËëĚěĒēĔĕĖėĘęĜĝĢģĞğĠġĤĥĦħÍíÌìÎîÏïĨĩǏǐĪīĬĭİıĮįĴĵĶķĹĺĻļĽľŁłŃńÑñŅņŇňÓóÒòÔôÖöÕõǑǒŌōŎŏǪǫŐőŔŕŖŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşŠšȘșȚțŤťÚúÙùÛûÜüŨũŮůǓǔŪūǖǘǚǜŬŭŲųŰűŴŵÝýŶŷŸÿȲȳŹźŽžŻżÆæǢǣØøŒœßÐðÞþƏəFormattingLinksHeadingsListsFilesDiscussionReferencesDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getItalic''Italic text''Italic textBold'''Bold text'''Bold textBold & italic'''''Bold & italic text'''''Bold & italic textDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getReferencePage text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>Page text.[1]Named referencePage text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>Page text.[2]Additional use of the same referencePage text.<ref name="test" />Page text.[2]Display references<references />↑ Link text, additional text.↑ Link text==== Brazil ==== {{Main|Race in Brazil}} [[File:Redenção.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Portrait "Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family becoming "whiter" each generation]] Compared to 19th-century United States, 20th-century [[Demographics of Brazil|Brazil]] was characterized by a perceived relative absence of sharply defined racial groups. According to anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], this pattern reflects a different history and different [[social relations]]. Race in Brazil was "biologized", but in a way that recognized the difference between ancestry (which determines [[genotype]]) and [[phenotypic]] differences. There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the [[one-drop rule]], as it was in the United States. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only a very limited number of categories to choose from,<ref name="Harris 1980" /> to the extent that full [[sibling]]s can pertain to different racial groups.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=140919 |pmid=12509516 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100 |volume=100 |issue=1 |title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians |date=January 2003 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |pages=177–182 |last1=Parra |first1=F. C. |last2=Amado |first2=R. C. |last3=Lambertucci |first3=J. R. |last4=Rocha |first4=J. |last5=Antunes |first5=C. M. |last6=Pena |first6=S. D. |bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P |doi-access=free}}</ref> {| class="wikitable floatleft" |- ! colspan="4" |Self-reported ancestry of people from<br />Rio de Janeiro, by race or skin color (2000 survey)<ref name="Telles">{{cite book |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/81 81–84] |title=Race in Another America: The significance of skin color in Brazil |first=Edward Eric |last=Telles |author-link=Edward Telles |chapter=Racial Classification |date=2004 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=0-691-11866-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/81}}</ref> |- ! Ancestry!! ''brancos'' !! ''pardos''!! ''negros'' |- | European only | 48% || 6%||– |- | African only | – ||12%||25% |- | Amerindian only | – ||2%||– |- | African and European | 23% ||34%||31% |- | Amerindian and European | 14% ||6%||– |- | African and Amerindian | – ||4%||9% |- | African, Amerindian and European | 15% ||36%||35% |- | Total | 100% ||100%||100% |- | Any African | 38% ||86%||100% |} Over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with all the possible combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred preferentially to appearance, not heredity, and appearance is a poor indication of ancestry, because only a few genes are responsible for someone's skin color and traits: a person who is considered white may have more African ancestry than a person who is considered black, and the reverse can be also true about European ancestry.<ref>{{cite web |first=Silvia |last=Salek |date=10 July 2007 |title=BBC delves into Brazilians' roots |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6284806.stm |access-date=13 July 2009}}</ref> The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil reflects the extent of genetic mixing in [[Brazilian society]], a society that remains highly, but not strictly, [[social stratification|stratified]] along color lines. These [[Socioeconomic status|socioeconomic]] factors are also significant to the limits of racial lines, because a minority of ''[[pardo]]s'', or brown people, are likely to start declaring themselves white or black if socially upward,<ref>{{cite book |last=Ribeiro |first=Darcy |author-link=Darcy Ribeiro |title=O Povo Brasileiro |trans-title=The Brazilian People |publisher=Companhia de Bolso |edition=4th reprint |date=2008 |language=pt}}</ref> and being seen as relatively "whiter" as their perceived social status increases (much as in other regions of Latin America).<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Levine-Rasky |editor-first=Cynthia |date=2002 |title=Working through whiteness: international perspectives |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-5340-7 |page=73 |quote='Money whitens' If any phrase encapsulates the association of whiteness and the modern in Latin America, this is it. It is a cliché formulated and reformulated throughout the region, a truism dependent upon the social experience that wealth is associated with whiteness, and that in obtaining the former one may become aligned with the latter (and vice versa).}}</ref> [[Racial fluidity|Fluidity of racial categories]] aside, the "biologification" of race in Brazil referred above would match contemporary concepts of race in the United States quite closely, though, if Brazilians are supposed to choose their race as one among, Asian and Indigenous apart, three IBGE's census categories. While assimilated [[Amerindians]] and people with very high quantities of Amerindian ancestry are usually grouped as ''[[caboclo]]s'', a subgroup of ''pardos'' which roughly translates as both [[mestizo]] and [[hillbilly]], for those of lower quantity of Amerindian descent a higher European genetic contribution is expected to be grouped as a ''pardo''. In several genetic tests, people with less than 60-65% of European descent and 5–10% of Amerindian descent usually cluster with [[Afro-Brazilian]]s (as reported by the individuals), or 6.9% of the population, and those with about 45% or more of Subsaharan contribution most times do so (in average, Afro-Brazilian DNA was reported to be about 50% Subsaharan African, 37% European and 13% Amerindian).<ref name="plosone.org" /><ref name="afrobras">{{cite web |url=http://www.afrobras.org.br/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2112&Itemid=2 |title=Negros de origem européia |trans-title=Blacks of European origin |language=pt |website=afrobras.org.br |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124105905/http://www.afrobras.org.br/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2112&Itemid=2 |archive-date=24 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Genetic signatures of parental contribution in black and white populations in Brazil |doi=10.1590/S1415-47572009005000001 |date=2009 |last1=Guerreiro-Junior |first1=Vanderlei |last2=Bisso-Machado |first2=Rafael |last3=Marrero |first3=Andrea |last4=Hünemeier |first4=Tábita |last5=Salzano |first5=Francisco M. |last6=Bortolini |first6=Maria Cátira |journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology |volume=32 |pages=1–11 |pmid=21637639 |issue=1 |pmc=3032968}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Genetic heritage variability of Brazilians in even regional averages, 2009 study |doi=10.1590/S0100-879X2009005000026 |date=2009 |last1=Pena |first1=S. D. J. |last2=Bastos-Rodrigues |first2=L. |last3=Pimenta |first3=J. R. |last4=Bydlowski |first4=S. P. |journal=Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=870–876 |pmid=19738982 |doi-access=free}}</ref> {| class="wikitable floatright" |- ! colspan="11" |Ethnic groups in Brazil (census data)<ref>{{cite web |title=Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento |publisher=IBGE |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/ |access-date=29 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923103736/http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/ |archive-date=23 September 2009 |language=pt}}</ref> |- !Ethnic group || white || black || multiracial |- style="text-align:right;" | 1872 || 3,787,289 || 1,954,452 || 4,188,737 |- style="text-align:right;" | 1940 || 26,171,778 || 6,035,869 || 8,744,365 |- style="text-align:right;" | 1991 || 75,704,927 || 7,335,136 || 62,316,064 |} {| class="wikitable floatright" |- ! colspan="6" |Ethnic groups in Brazil (1872 and 1890)<ref name="Ramos">{{cite book |last=Ramos |first=Arthur |date=2003 |title=A mestiçagem no Brasil |trans-title=Miscegenation in Brazil |language=pt |publisher=EDUFAL |location=Maceió, Brazil |isbn=978-85-7177-181-9 |page=82}}</ref> |- ! Years ! whites ! multiracial ! blacks ! Indians ! Total |- | 1872 | 38.1% | 38.3% | 19.7% | 3.9% | 100% |- | 1890 | 44.0% | 32.4% | 14.6% | 9% | 100% |} If a more consistent report with the genetic groups in the gradation of genetic mixing is to be considered (e.g. that would not cluster people with a balanced degree of African and non-African ancestry in the black group instead of the multiracial one, unlike elsewhere in Latin America where people of high quantity of African descent tend to classify themselves as mixed), more people would report themselves as white and ''pardo'' in Brazil (47.7% and 42.4% of the population as of 2010, respectively), because by research its population is believed to have between 65 and 80% of autosomal European ancestry, in average (also >35% of European mt-DNA and >95% of European Y-DNA).<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal |title=The Genomic Ancestry of Individuals from Different Geographical Regions of Brazil Is More Uniform Than Expected |date=2011 |first1=Sérgio D. J. |last1=Pena |first2=Giuliano |last2=Di Pietro |first3=Mateus |last3=Fuchshuber-Moraes |first4=Julia Pasqualini |last4=Genro |first5=Mara H. |last5=Hutz |first6=Fernanda de Souza Gomes |last6=Kehdy |first7=Fabiana |last7=Kohlrausch |first8=Luiz Alexandre Viana |last8=Magno |first9=Raquel Carvalho |last9=Montenegro |first10=Manoel Odorico |last10=Moraes |first11=Maria Elisabete Amaral |last11=de Moraes |first12=Milene Raiol |last12=de Moraes |first13=Élida B. |last13=Ojopi |first14=Jamila A. |last14=Perini |first15=Clarice |last15=Racciopi |first16=Ândrea Kely Campos |last16=Ribeiro-dos-Santos |first17=Fabrício |last17=Rios-Santos |first18=Marco A. |last18=Romano-Silva |first19=Vinicius A. |last19=Sortica |first20=Guilherme |last20=Suarez-Kurtz |journal=[[PLoS One]] |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=e17063 |pmid=21359226 |pmc=3040205 |editor-last=Harpending |editor-first=Henry |bibcode=2011PLoSO...617063P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017063 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf |title=Allele frequencies of 15 STRs in a representative sample of the Brazilian population |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.05.006 |date=2010 |last1=De Assis Poiares |first1=Lilian |last2=De Sá Osorio |first2=Paulo |last3=Spanhol |first3=Fábio Alexandre |last4=Coltre |first4=Sidnei César |last5=Rodenbusch |first5=Rodrigo |last6=Gusmão |first6=Leonor |last7=Largura |first7=Alvaro |last8=Sandrini |first8=Fabiano |last9=Da Silva |first9=Cláudia Maria Dornelles |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e61–e63 |pmid=20129458 |archive-date=8 April 2011 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5xmleMZgv?url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |url=http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=3873 |first=Neide Maria de |last=Oliveira Godinho |title=O Impacto das Migrações na Constituição Genética de Populações Latino-Americanas |trans-title=The Impact of Migration on the Genetic Constitution of Latin American Populations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162307/http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_arquivos/36/TDE-2008-08-21T100337Z-3085/Publico/2008_NeideMOGodinho.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |type=PhD thesis |publisher=[[Universidade de Brasília]] |date=2008 |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Reinaldo José |last=Lopes |date=5 October 2009 |title=DNA de brasileiro é 80% europeu, indica estudo |website=Folha de S.Paulo |url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/ciencia/ult306u633465.shtml |trans-title=Brazilian DNA is nearly 80% European, indicates study |language=pt}}</ref> From the last decades of the [[Empire of Brazil|Empire]] until the 1950s, the proportion of the white population increased significantly while Brazil welcomed 5.5 million immigrants between 1821 and 1932, not much behind its neighbor Argentina with 6.4 million,<ref name="whitaker">{{cite book |title=Argentina |first=Arthur P. |last=Whitaker |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |date=1984}}, Cited in {{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/1/90.01.06.x.html |title=Yale immigration study |publisher=[[Yale University]]}}</ref> and it received more European immigrants in its colonial history than the United States. Between 1500 and 1760, 700.000 Europeans settled in Brazil, while 530.000 Europeans settled in the United States for the same given time.<ref>{{cite book |first=Renato Pinto |last=Venâncio |chapter=Presença portuguesa: de colonizadores a imigrantes |trans-chapter=Portuguese presence: from colonizers to immigrants |title=Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento |trans-title=Brazil: 500 years of settlement |publisher=IBGE |location=Rio de Janeiro |date=2000}}, Relevant extract available here: {{cite web |url=https://brasil500anos.ibge.gov.br/territorio-brasileiro-e-povoamento/portugueses |access-date=16 October 2021 |title=território brasileiro e povoamento |trans-title=Brazilian territory and settlement |language=pt |publisher=IBGE}}</ref> Thus, the historical construction of race in Brazilian society dealt primarily with gradations between persons of majority European ancestry and little minority groups with otherwise lower quantity therefrom in recent times. 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