Oceania Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Geography == {{anchor|Territories and regions}} {{See also|List of Oceanian countries by population|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania}} [[File:Aoraki Mount Cook.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Aoraki / Mount Cook]], located on the [[South Island]] of New Zealand]] [[File:Puncakjaya.jpg|thumb|[[Puncak Jaya]] / ''Carstensz Pyramid'', highest summit in Oceania]] Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the [[Bonin Islands]] in the northwest, the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in the northeast, [[Easter Island]] and [[Isla Salas y Gómez|Sala y Gómez Island]] in the east, and [[Macquarie Island]] in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of [[Taiwan]], the [[Ryukyu Islands]], and the [[Japanese archipelago]], which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the [[Aleutian Islands]] and other Alaskan or Canadian islands.<ref name="nz"/><ref name="ev"/> In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl [[28th parallel north|28 degrees north]] to the Bonin Islands in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], and [[55th parallel south|55 degrees south]] to Macquarie Island in the [[Southern Hemisphere]].<ref name="race1750" /> Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, [[high island]]s, [[coral reef]]s and uplifted [[coral island|coral platforms]]. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]], Hawai{{okina}}i, and Solomon Islands.<ref name="GillespieClague2009" /> Oceania is one of eight terrestrial [[biogeographic realm]]s, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are [[Near Oceania]], that part of western [[Island Melanesia]] which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and [[Remote Oceania]] which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – [[Kangaroo Island]] and [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], for instance, are situated in the [[Southern Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]], respectively, and [[West Coast, Tasmania|Tasmania's west coast]] faces the Southern Ocean.<ref name="othero5" /> The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the [[Great Barrier Reef]] off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include [[Banaba Island|Banaba]] (formerly Ocean Island) and [[Makatea]] in the Tuamotu group of [[French Polynesia]].<ref name="britta" /><ref name="abcnet22613" /> [[File:"Political Oceania" CIA World Factbook.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A map of Oceania from the CIA World Factbook]] ===Regions=== [[Micronesia]], which lies north of the equator and west of the [[International Date Line]], includes the [[Mariana Islands]] in the northwest, the [[Caroline Islands]] in the centre, the [[Marshall Islands]] to the west and the islands of [[Kiribati]] in the southeast.<ref name="AAE" /><ref name="LalFortune2000p63" /> [[Melanesia]], to the southwest, includes [[New Guinea]], the world's second largest island after [[Greenland]] and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], the [[Solomon Islands]], the [[Santa Cruz Islands]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Fiji]] and [[New Caledonia]].<ref name="West2009" /> [[Polynesia]], stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses [[Tuvalu]], [[Tokelau]], [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], and the [[Kermadec Islands]] to the west, the [[Cook Islands]], [[Society Islands]] and [[Austral Islands]] in the centre, and the [[Marquesas Islands]], the [[Tuamotus]], [[Mangareva Islands]], and [[Easter Island]] to the east.<ref name="DunfordRidgell1996" /> [[Australasia]] comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the [[Southern Ocean]] to the south.<ref name="voyage6" /><ref name="auxter" /> ===Geology=== {{Main|Geography of Fiji|Geology of New Zealand|Geology of Australia|Geography of Samoa}} [[File:Plaque Pacifique.JPG|thumb|The [[Pacific Plate]] comprises most of Oceania, excluding [[Australasia]] and the western portion of [[Melanesia]].|left]] The [[Pacific Plate]], which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plate]] that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At {{convert|103|e6km2|sqmi}}, it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]] forming the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref name="tecto" /> It is almost entirely [[oceanic crust]].<ref name="platetec2010" /> The oldest member disappearing by way of the [[plate tectonics]] cycle is early-[[Cretaceous]] (145 to 137 million years ago).<ref name="ageof" /> Australia became part of the [[Indo-Australian plate]] 45 to 40 million years ago and this is in the process of separating again with the [[Australian Plate]] being relevant to Oceania.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keep |first1=Myra |last2=Schellart |first2=Wouter P. |title=Introduction to the thematic issue on the evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |journal=[[Australian Journal of Earth Sciences]] |year=2012 |volume=59, 2012 |issue=6: THEMATIC ISSUE — Evolution and dynamics of the Indo-Australian plate |pages=807–808 |doi=10.1080/08120099.2012.708360 |bibcode=2012AuJES..59..807K |s2cid=128996831 }}</ref> It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth<ref name="distinct227" /> and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as [[tectonic uplift]] of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of [[Gondwana]]. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).<ref name="ag" /> The [[geology]] of New Zealand is noted for its [[volcanic]] activity, [[earthquake]]s, and [[Geothermal activity|geothermal]] [[Geothermal areas in New Zealand|areas]] because of its position on the boundary of the [[Australian Plate]] and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, [[Madagascar]], India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]] were nestled between Eastern Australia and [[Western Antarctica]].<ref name="tearaz" /> The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the [[late Cretaceous]] time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The [[Tasman Sea]], and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the [[Australian Plate]] (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate. Most islands in the Pacific are [[high islands]] ([[volcanic]] islands), such as, [[Easter Island]], [[American Samoa]] and [[Fiji]], among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore.<ref name="Factbook-Fiji" /> The [[Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]] were formed {{circa}} 7 to 30 million years ago, as [[shield volcano]]es over the same volcanic [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] that formed the [[Emperor Seamounts]] to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south.<ref name="geochr" /> Hawaii's tallest mountain [[Mauna Kea]] is {{convert|13796|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}} above mean sea level.<ref name="usgsgov" /> ===Flora=== {{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of New Zealand|Flora of Australia|Flora of New Zealand|Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands|Domesticated plants of Austronesia}} [[File:Countryside Kaikoura, New Zealand.JPG|thumb|New Zealand countryside]] [[File:Uluṟu (Ayers Rock), Sunset.jpg|thumb|[[Uluru]] (Ayers Rock) in [[Central Australia]]]] The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical [[rainforest]]s in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre.<ref name="envigov2012" /> [[Deserts of Australia|Desert]] or semi-arid land commonly known as the [[outback]] makes up by far the largest portion of land.<ref name="portrait" /> The [[Eastern Australian temperate forests|coastal uplands]] and a [[Brigalow Belt|belt of Brigalow grasslands]] lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland.<ref name="drivers375" /> The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested [[Cape York Peninsula]].<ref name="uplands" /><ref name="gdowns" /><ref name="mulgas" /><ref name="tempera" /><ref name="savanna" /> Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to [[aridity]] and fire which include [[sclerophyll|scleromorphy]] and [[serotiny]]. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families [[Proteaceae]] (''[[Banksia]]''), [[Myrtaceae]] (''[[Eucalyptus]]'' – gum trees), and [[Fabaceae]] (''[[Acacia]]'' – wattle). The flora of Fiji, [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]], and [[New Caledonia]] is [[tropical dry forest]], with [[tropical vegetation]] that includes [[palm trees]], [[premna protrusa|''Premna protrusa'']], [[psydrax odorata|''Psydrax odorata'']], [[gyrocarpus americanus|''Gyrocarpus americanus'']], and [[derris trifoliata|''Derris trifoliata'']].<ref name="mostvb" /> New Zealand's landscape ranges from the [[fjord]]-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the [[Southern Alps]]. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]], at {{convert|3754|metre}}. Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year.<ref name="newzat" /> There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.<ref name="vascplant" /> In Hawaii, one endemic plant, ''[[Brighamia]]'', now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct.<ref name="plantprop" /> The two species of ''Brighamia'' – ''B. rockii'' and ''B. insignis'' – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down {{convert|3000|foot|m|adj=on|order=flip}} cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.<ref name="forgotpol" /> ===Fauna=== {{Main|Fauna of Australia|Birds of Australia|Birds of New Zealand|Fauna of New Zealand|Mammals of Australia|List of birds of Australia|List of birds of New Zealand|Domesticated animals of Austronesia}} [[File:Norfolk Robin (Petroica multicolor) in the Norfolk Island.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Pacific robin]] inhabits the islands of the south western Pacific.<ref name="IUCN" />]] The aptly named [[Pacific kingfisher]] is found in the Pacific Islands,<ref name="handbirds" /> as is the [[Red-vented bulbul]],<ref name="icunet22717" /> [[Polynesian starling]],<ref name="hawaiibirds" /> [[Brown goshawk]],<ref name="birdsback" /> [[Pacific Swallow]]<ref name="Turner" /> and the [[Cardinal myzomela]], among others.<ref name="cardinal" /> Birds breeding on [[Pitcairn]] include the [[fairy tern]], [[common noddy]], and [[red-tailed tropicbird]]. The [[Pitcairn reed warbler]], endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the [[endangered species]] list in 2008.<ref name="icunred181023" /> Native to Hawaii is the [[Hawaiian crow]], which has been [[extinct in the wild]] since 2002.<ref name="forestbirds" /> The [[brown tree snake]] is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands.<ref name="btsnakegov" /> Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are [[birds of paradise]], [[honeyeater]]s, [[Australasian treecreeper]], [[Australasian robin]], [[kingfisher]]s, [[butcherbird]]s, and [[bowerbird]]s.<ref name="systax" /><ref name="Steadman 2006" /> A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native [[placentalia|placental]] mammals, and dominance of the [[marsupial]]s – a group of mammals that raise their young in a [[pouch (marsupial)|pouch]], including the [[Macropodidae|macropods]], [[Phalangeriformes|possums]], and [[dasyuromorphia|dasyuromorphs]]. The [[passerine]]s of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include [[wren]]s, the [[Artamidae|magpie group]], [[Acanthiza|thornbills]], [[corvid]]s, [[pardalote]]s, [[lyrebird]]s.<ref name="ioc" /> Predominant bird species in the country include the [[Australian magpie]], [[Australian raven]], the [[pied currawong]], [[crested pigeon]]s and the [[laughing kookaburra]].<ref name="encycwild" /> The [[koala]], [[emu]], [[platypus]] and [[kangaroo]] are [[national animals]] of Australia,<ref name="CoatArms" /> and the [[Tasmanian devil]] is also one of the well-known animals in the country.<ref name="tassie" /> The [[goanna]] is a [[predatory]] lizard native to the [[Australian mainland]].<ref name="dangerc" /> The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of [[Endemism|endemic]] species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the [[bird vocalization|bird song]] was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the [[kākāpō]] which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, [[Lek mating|lek-breeding]] parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the [[Kiwi (bird)|kiwi]], [[kea]], [[takahē]], Kākāpō, [[Yellowhead (bird)|mohua]], [[tūī]], and the [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbird]].<ref name="assemb152" /> The [[tuatara]] is a notable [[reptile]] endemic to New Zealand.<ref name="vicvag32" /> Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's [[parrot]] species, including half of all [[Critically Endangered]] parrots, many of which are [[endemic]] to the region.<ref name="Olah2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Olah |first1=George |last2=Theuerkauf |first2=Jörn |last3=Legault |first3=Andrew |last4=Gula |first4=Roman |last5=Stein |first5=John |last6=Butchart |first6=Stuart |last7=O’Brien |first7=Mark |last8=Heinsohn |first8=Robert |date=2018 |title=Parrots of Oceania – a comparative study of extinction risk |url=https://georgeolah.com/documents/olah_et_al_2018a_parrots_of_oceania.pdf |journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology |language=en |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=94–112 |doi=10.1080/01584197.2017.1410066 |bibcode=2018EmuAO.118...94O |s2cid=135275510 |issn=0158-4197}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Australia|Climate of New Zealand|Climate of Hawaii}} [[File:First Church, Dunedin, NZ.jpg|thumb|right|August 2011 winter's snowfall in [[Dunedin]], [[Otago]]]] The Pacific Islands are ruled by a [[tropical rainforest]] and [[tropical savanna climate]]. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the [[El Niño Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) affects weather conditions.<ref name="noaagov" /> In the tropical western Pacific, the [[monsoon]] and the related [[wet season]] during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass.<ref name="allenp2009" /> November is the only month in which all the [[tropical cyclone basins]] are active.<ref name="AOML FAQ G1" /> To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]], with the southern coastal corners having a [[Temperateness|temperate]] climate, such as [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] and [[humid subtropical]] climate in the east coast and [[Mediterranean climate]] in the west. The northern parts of the country have a [[tropical climate]].<ref name="climatea" /> Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[New South Wales]], [[Tasmania]] and in the [[Australian Capital Territory]].<ref name="precip376" /> Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a [[maritime climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]] of the [[South Island]] to almost [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] in [[Central Otago]] and [[subtropical]] in [[North Auckland Peninsula|Northland]].<ref name="enviclim" /><ref name="niwaco" /> Snow falls in New Zealand's [[South Island]] and at higher altitudes in the [[North Island]]. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.<ref name="tele141116" /> Hawaii, although being in the [[tropic]]s, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]] for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as {{convert|4,028|sqmi|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}} according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).<ref name="loveb20120703" /> A few islands in the northwest, such as [[Guam]], are susceptible to [[typhoon]]s in the wet season.<ref name="pubaff042700" /> The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in [[Oodnadatta]], South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached {{convert|50.7|C}}.<ref name="bomgovdai" /> The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was {{convert|-25.6|C|F}}, at [[Ranfurly, New Zealand|Ranfurly]] in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of {{convert|-21.6|C|F}} recorded in 1995 in nearby [[Ophir, New Zealand|Ophir]].<ref name="herald120611" /> [[Pohnpei]] of the [[Senyavin Islands]] in [[Micronesia]] is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding {{convert|300|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on}} each year in certain mountainous locations.<ref name="werigu" /> [[Big Bog, Maui|The Big Bog]] on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average {{convert|10,271|mm|in|abbr=on}} each year.<ref name="matology105" /> {{Gallery |title= Köppen climate classification of selected regions in Oceania |width=220 |height=200 |align=center |File:Australia Köppen.svg|Australia |File:Hawaii Köppen.png|Hawaii |File:New Zealand Köppen.png|New Zealand |File:New Guinea map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Papua New Guinea |File:Oceania map of Köppen climate classification.svg|Australasia and adjacent islands}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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