Crusades

==Other crusades==
{{see also|Chronology of the Crusades}}
[[File:Deutscher Orden in Europa 1300.png|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Map of the branches of the [[Teutonic Order]] in Europe {{circa|1300}}. Shaded area is sovereign territory.]]

The military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th{{nbsp}}centuries to recover the Holy Land from Muslims provided a template for warfare in other areas that also interested the Latin Church. These included the 12th and 13th{{nbsp}}century [[Reconquista|conquest of]] Muslim [[Al-Andalus]] by Spanish Christian kingdoms; 12th to 15th{{nbsp}}century German [[Northern Crusades]] expansion into the pagan [[Baltic region]]; the suppression of non-conformity, particularly in [[Languedoc]] during what has become called the [[Albigensian Crusade]] and for the Papacy's temporal advantage in Italy and Germany that are now known as political crusades. In the 13th and 14th centuries there were also unsanctioned, but related popular uprisings to recover Jerusalem known variously as Shepherds' or Children's crusades.{{sfn|Housley|1992}}

Urban II equated the crusades for Jerusalem with the ongoing Catholic invasion of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and crusades were preached in 1114 and 1118, but it was [[Pope Callixtus II]] who proposed dual fronts in Spain and the [[Middle East]] in 1122. In the spring of 1147, Eugene authorised the expansion of his mission into the Iberian peninsula, equating these campaigns against the [[Moors]] with the rest of the Second Crusade. The successful [[siege of Lisbon]], from 1 July to 25 October 1147, was followed by the six-month [[Siege of Tortosa (1148)|siege of Tortosa]], ending on 30 December 1148 with a defeat for the Moors.<ref>Jaspert, Nikolas (2006). "Tortosa (Spain)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. p. 1186.</ref> In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan [[Wends]] were a more immediate problem. The resulting [[Wendish Crusade]] of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity.<ref>Lind, John H. (2006). " Wendish Crusade (1147)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1265–1268.</ref> By the time of the Second Crusade the three Spanish kingdoms were powerful enough to conquer Islamic territory{{snd}}[[Crown of Castile|Castile]], [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=188}} In 1212 the Spanish were victorious at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] with the support of foreign fighters responding to the preaching of Innocent III. Many of these deserted because of the Spanish tolerance of the defeated Muslims, for whom the Reconquista was a war of domination rather than extermination.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=191}} In contrast the Christians formerly living under Muslim rule called [[Mozarabs]] had the [[Roman Rite]] relentlessly imposed on them and were absorbed into mainstream Catholicism.<ref name="Jotischky 2004 131">{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=131}}</ref> Al-Andalus, Islamic Spain, was completely suppressed in 1492 when the [[Emirate of Granada]] surrendered.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=212–213}}

In 1147, [[Pope Eugene III]] extended Calixtus's idea by authorising a crusade on the German north-eastern frontier against the pagan [[Wends]] from what was primarily economic conflict.{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=199–205}} From the early 13th{{nbsp}}century, there was significant involvement of military orders, such as the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] and the [[Order of Dobrzyń]]. The Teutonic Knights diverted efforts from the Holy Land, absorbed these orders and established the [[State of the Teutonic Order]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=202–203}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=315–327}} This evolved the [[Duchy of Prussia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] in 1525 and 1562, respectively.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=328–333}}

[[File:Albigensian Crusade 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Two illuminations: the pope admonishing a group of people and mounted knights attacking unarmed people with swords|Miniatures showing [[Pope Innocent III]] excommunicating, and the crusaders massacring, Cathars (BL Royal 16 G VI, fol. 374v, 14th{{nbsp}}century)]]
By the beginning of the 13th{{nbsp}}century Papal reticence in applying crusades against the papacy's political opponents and those considered heretics. Innocent III proclaimed [[Albigensian Crusade|a crusade]] against Catharism that failed to suppress the heresy itself but ruined the culture the [[Languedoc]].{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|pp=42–43}} This set a precedent that was followed in 1212 with pressure exerted on the city of [[History of Milan#Middle Ages|Milan]] for tolerating Catharism,{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=193}} in 1234 [[Stedinger Crusade|against]] the [[Stedingen|Stedinger]] peasants of north-western Germany, in 1234 and 1241 Hungarian crusades against [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnian heretics]].{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|pp=42–43}} The historian [[Norman Housley]] notes the connection between [[heterodoxy]] and anti-papalism in Italy.{{sfn|Housley|1982}} [[Indulgence]] was offered to anti-heretical groups such as the [[Militia of Jesus Christ]] and the [[Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=193–196}} Innocent III declared the first political crusade against Frederick II's regent, [[Markward von Annweiler]], and when Frederick later threatened Rome in 1240, Gregory IX used crusading terminology to raise support against him. On Frederick II's death the focus moved to Sicily. In 1263, [[Pope Urban IV]] offered crusading indulgences to Charles of Anjou in return for Sicily's conquest. However, these wars had no clear objectives or limitations, making them unsuitable for crusading.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=195–198}} The [[Papal election, 1280–81|1281 election]] of a French pope, [[Pope Martin IV|Martin{{nbsp}}IV]], brought the power of the papacy behind Charles. Charles's preparations for a crusade against Constantinople were foiled by the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], who instigated an uprising called the [[Sicilian Vespers]]. Instead, [[Peter III of Aragon]] was proclaimed king of Sicily, despite his excommunication and an unsuccessful [[Aragonese Crusade]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=198}} Political crusading continued against Venice over [[Ferrara]]; [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV, King of Germany]] when he [[Romzug|marched to Rome]] for his imperial coronation; and the [[Free company|free companies]] of mercenaries.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=353–354}}

The Latin states established were a fragile patchwork of petty realms threatened by Byzantine successor states{{snd}}the [[Despotate of Epirus]], the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. [[Thessaloniki]] fell to Epirus in 1224, and Constantinople to Nicaea in 1261. Achaea and Athens survived under the [[Capetian House of Anjou|French]] after the [[Treaty of Viterbo]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=125, 133, 337, 436–437}} The Venetians endured a long-standing conflict with the Ottoman Empire until the final possessions were lost in the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718)|Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War]] in the 18th{{nbsp}}century. This period of [[History of Greece|Greek history]] is known as the ''[[Frankokratia]]'' or ''Latinokratia'' ("Frankish or Latin rule") and designates a period when western European Catholics ruled [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[Byzantine Greeks]].<ref>Hendrickx, Benjamin (2006). "Constantinople, Latin Empire of". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 279–286.</ref>

The major [[Crusades after Acre, 1291–1399|crusades of the 14th century]] include: the [[Fra Dolcino|Crusade against the Dulcinians]]; the [[Crusade of the Poor]]; the [[Walter VI, Count of Brienne#Anti-Catalan crusade of 1331–1332|Anti-Catalan Crusade]]; the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|Shepherds' Crusade]]; the [[Smyrniote crusades|Smyrniote Crusades]]; the [[Magnus IV of Sweden#Crusade against Novgorod|Crusade against Novgorod]]; the [[Savoyard Crusade]]; the [[Alexandrian Crusade]]; the [[Despenser's Crusade]]; the [[Barbary Crusade|Mahdia]], [[Crusade of Tedelis|Tedelis]], and [[Bona crusade|Bona Crusades]]; and the [[Battle of Nicopolis|Crusade of Nicopolis]].

The threat of the expanding [[Ottoman Empire]] prompted further [[Crusades of the 15th Century|crusades of the 15th century]]. In 1389, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the [[Battle of Kosovo]], won [[Ottoman conquest of the Balkans|control of the Balkans]] from the [[Danube]] to the [[Gulf of Corinth]], in 1396 defeated French crusaders and [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|King Sigismund of Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Nicopolis|Nicopolis]], in 1444 destroyed a crusading Polish and Hungarian force at [[Crusade of Varna|Varna]], four years later again defeated the Hungarians at [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Kosovo]] and in 1453 captured Constantinople. The 16th{{nbsp}}century saw growing rapprochement. The [[Habsburgs]], French, Spanish and Venetians and Ottomans all signed treaties. [[Francis I of France]] allied with all quarters, including from German Protestant princes and Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=406–408}}

Anti-Christian crusading declined in the 15th{{nbsp}}century, the exceptions were the [[Hussite Wars|six failed crusades]] against the religiously radical [[Hussites]] in [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] and attacks on the [[Waldensians]] in Savoy.{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=358–359}} Crusading became a financial exercise; precedence was given to the commercial and political objectives. The military threat presented by the Ottoman Turks diminished, making anti-Ottoman crusading obsolete in 1699 with the final [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=257}}{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=9, 257, 420–421}}