Chinese folk religion

==Sociological typology==
Wu Hsin-Chao (2014) distinguishes four kinds of Chinese traditional religious organisation:{{sfnb|Wu|2014|p=11, and note 1}} [[Chinese ancestral religion|ancestry worship]]; [[Chinese communal deity religion|deity worship]]; [[Chinese secret societies|secret societies]]; and [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk religious sects]].

===Types of indigenous—ethnic religion===

====Worship of local and national deities====
[[File:Zhangzhou Putou Damiao 20120225-2.jpg|thumb|{{lang-zh|浦頭大廟}} ''Pǔtóu dàmiào'', the "First Great Temple by the Riverside", in [[Zhangzhou]], [[Fujian]].]]
Chinese religion in its communal expression involves the worship of gods that are the generative power and tutelary spirit (''[[genius loci]]'') of a locality or a certain aspect of nature (for example [[water gods]], [[river gods]], [[fire gods]], [[mountain gods]]), or of gods that are common ancestors of a village, a larger identity, or the Chinese nation ([[Shennong]], [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]], [[Pangu]]).

The social structure of this religion is the ''shénshè'' {{lang-zh|神社}} (literally "society of a god"), synonymous with ''shehui'' {{lang-zh|社會}}, in which ''shè'' {{lang-zh|社}} originally meant the altar of a community's earth god,{{sfnb|Overmyer|2009|p=xii}} while {{lang-zh|會}} ''huì'' means "association", "assembly", "church" or "gathering". This type of religious trusts can be dedicated to a god which is bound to a single village or temple or to a god which has a wider following, in multiple villages, provinces or even a national importance. [[Mao Zedong]] distinguished "god associations", "village communities" and "temple associations" in his analysis of religious trusts.<ref name="Mao-hui">{{cite book | last1 = Mao | first1 = Zedong | last2 = Reynolds Schram | first2 = Stuart | last3 = Hodes | first3 = Nancy Jane | year = 1992 | title = Mao's Road to Power: From the Jinggangshan to the establishment of the Jiangxi Soviets, July 1927 – December 1930 | publisher = M. E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-1563244391 }} p. 353-354</ref> In his words: "every kind and type of god [''shen''] can have an association [''hui'']", for example the Zhaogong Association, the Guanyin Association, the Guangong Association, the Dashen Association, the Bogong Association, the Wenchang Association, and the like.<ref name="Mao-hui"/> Within the category of ''hui'' Mao also distinguished the sacrifice associations (''jiàohuì'' {{lang-zh|醮會}}) which make sacrifices in honour of gods.<ref name="Mao-hui"/>

These societies organise gatherings and festivals (''[[miaohui]]'' {{lang-zh|廟會}}) participated by members of the whole village or larger community on the occasions of what are believed to be the birthdays of the gods or other events,{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=8}} or to seek protection from droughts, epidemics, and other disasters.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=8}} Such festivals invoke the power of the gods for practical goals to "summon blessings and drive away harm".{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=8}} Special devotional currents within this framework can be identified by specific names such as [[Mazuism]] ({{lang-zh|媽祖教}} ''Māzǔjiào''),<ref>Fujian Government's website: [http://www.stats-fj.gov.cn/tongjinianjian/dz07/html/0100e.htm Fujian's General Information]. {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20140107052910/http://www.stats-fj.gov.cn/tongjinianjian/dz07/html/0100e.htm |date=7 January 2014 }}. Quote: "''At present, major religions practiced in Fujian include Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. In addition, Fujian has its folk belief with deeply local characteristic, such as Mazuism, the belief in Mazu, (which) is very influential''".</ref> [[Wang Ye worship]], or the cult of the Silkworm Mother.<ref>Fan Lizhu. ''The Cult of the Silkworm Mother as a Core of a Local Community Religion in a North China Village: Field Study in Zhiwuying, Baoding, Hebei''. The China Quarterly No. 174 (Jun. 2003), 360.</ref>

This type of religion is prevalent in north China, where lineage religion is absent, private, or historically present only within families of southern origin, and patrilineal ties are based on [[agnatic seniority|seniority]],{{sfnb|Chau|2005a|p=50|ps=. Discussing folk religion in [[Shanbei]]: "There were very few ancestral halls in the past in Shaanbei and none have been revived in the reform era, although there are isolated instances of the rewriting of lineage genealogies. Shaanbei people have never had domestic ancestral altars (except perhaps a few gentry families who might have brought this tradition from the South), even though in the past, as was common in North China, they kept collective ancestral tablets (''shenzhu'') or large cloth scrolls with drawings of ancestral tablets that they used during special occasions such as during the Lunar New Year's ancestral worship ceremony. There are visits to the graves of the immediate ancestors a few times a year on prescribed occasions such as the Cold Food (''hanshi'') / Clear and Bright (''qingming'') (Third Month Ninth) but Shaanbei people do not believe that their ancestors' souls are active forces capable of protecting, benefiting or troubling the living."}}<ref name=Wu20 /> and villages are composed of people with different surnames. In this context, the deity societies or temple societies function as poles of the civil organism.<ref name="Overmyer, 2009. pp. 12-13">Overmyer, 2009. pp. 12–13: "As for the physical and social structure of villages on this vast flat expanse; they consist of close groups of houses built on a raised area, surrounded by their fields, with a multi-surnamed population of families who own and cultivate their own land, though usually not much more than twenty ''mou'' or about three acres. ... Families of different surnames living in one small community meant that lineages were not strong enough to maintain lineage shrines and cross-village organizations, so, at best, they owned small burial plots and took part only in intra-village activities. The old imperial government encouraged villages to manage themselves and collect and hand over their own taxes. ... leaders were responsible for settling disputes, dealing with local government, organizing crop protection and planning for collective ceremonies. All these factors tended to strengthen the local protective deities and their temples as focal points of village identity and activity. This social context defines North China local religion, and keeps us from wandering off into vague discussions of 'popular' and 'elite' and relationships with Daoism and Buddhism."</ref> Often deity societies incorporate entire villages; this is the reason why in north China there can be found many villages which are named after deities and their temples, for example ''Léishénmiào'' village ({{lang-zh|雷神廟}} "[Village of the] Temple of the Thunder God")  or ''Mǎshénmiàocūn'' ({{lang-zh|馬神廟村}} "Village of the Temple of the Horse God").

====Lineage religion====
{{Main|Chinese ancestral religion}}
[[File:Guanji temple and Huang shrine in Lucheng, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China (1).jpg|right|thumb|Guanji [[Chinese temple|temple]] (left) and Huang [[ancestral shrine]] (right) in [[Wenzhou]], [[Zhejiang]].]]
[[File:Worship at an ancestral temple in Hong'an, Hubei, China.jpg|thumb|People gather for a worship ceremony at an ancestral shrine in [[Hong'an County|Hong'an]], [[Hubei]].]]

Another dimension of the Chinese folk religion is based on family or genealogical worship of deities and ancestors in family altars or private temples (''simiao'' {{lang-zh|私廟}} or ''jiamiao'' {{lang-zh|家廟}}), or [[ancestral shrine]]s (''citang'' {{lang-zh|祠堂}} or ''zongci'' {{lang-zh|宗祠}}, or also ''zumiao'' {{lang-zh|祖廟}}).{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=13}} [[Chinese lineage associations|Kinship associations or churches]] (''zōngzú xiéhuì'' {{lang-zh|宗族協會}}), congregating people with the same [[Chinese surname|surname]] and belonging to the same [[Chinese kin|kin]], are the social expression of this religion: these lineage societies build temples where the deified ancestors of a certain group (for example the ''[[Chen (surname)|Chen]]s'' or the ''[[Lin (surname)|Lin]]s'') are enshrined and worshiped.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|pp=14-15}} These temples serve as centres of aggregation for people belonging to the same lineage, and the lineage body may provide a context of identification and mutual assistance for individual persons.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|pp=14-15}}

The construction of large and elaborate ancestral temples traditionally represents a kin's wealth, influence and achievement.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=15}} Scholar K. S. Yang has explored the ethno-political dynamism of this form of religion, through which people who become distinguished for their value and virtue are considered immortal and receive posthumous divine titles, and are believed to protect their descendants, inspiring a mythological lore for the collective memory of a family or kin.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=16}}

If their temples and their deities enshrined acquire popularity they are considered worthy of the virtue of ''ling'', "efficacy".{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=16}} Worship of ancestors (''[[Ancestor veneration in China|jingzu]]'' {{lang-zh|敬祖}}) is observed nationally with large-scale rituals on [[Qingming Festival]] and other holidays.

This type of religion prevails in south China, where lineage bonds are stronger and the patrilineal hierarchy is not based upon seniority, and access to corporate resources held by a lineage is based upon the equality of all the lines of descent.<ref name=Wu20>{{harvp|Wu|2014|p=20}}. Quote: "...&nbsp;southern China refers to Fujian and Guangdong province and in some cases is expanded to include Guangxi, Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces. Historically speaking, these areas had the strong lineage organizations and the territorial cult, compared to the rest of China in the late imperial period. These areas not only were the first to revive lineage and the territorial cult in the reform era, but also have the intensity and scale of revivals that cannot be matched by the other part of China. This phenomenon is furthered referred as the southern model, based on the south-vs.-north model. The north model refers to the absence of landholding cooperative lineages that exist in the south." Note 16: The south-vs.-north model comparison has been the thrust of historical and anthropological research. Cohen's article on "Lineage organization in North China (1990)" offers the best summary on the contrast between the north model and the south model. He calls the north China model "the fixed genealogical mode of agnatic kinship". By which, he means "patrilineal ties are figured on the basis of the relative seniority of descent lines so that the unity of the lineage as a whole is based upon a ritual focus on the senior descent line trace back to the founding ancestor, his eldest son, and the succession of eldest sons." (ibid: 510) In contrast, the south China model is called "the associational mode of patrilineal kinship". In this mode, all lines of descent are equal. "Access to corporate resources held by a lineage or lineage segment is based upon the equality of kinship ties asserted in the associational mode." However, the distinction between the north and the south model is somewhat arbitrary. Some practices of the south model are found in north China. Meanwhile, the so-call north model is not exclusive to north China. The set of characteristics of the north model (a distinctive arrangement of cemeteries, graves, ancestral scrolls, ancestral tablets, and corporate groups linked to a characteristic annual ritual cycle) is not a system. In reality, lineage organizations display a mixture between the south and the north model."{{verify quote|reason=mismatched quotation marks make the extent of this quotation unclear|date=March 2021}}</ref>

===Philosophical and ritual modalities===

====Wuism and shamanic traditions====
{{Main|Chinese shamanism|Nuo folk religion}}
[[File:Yard leading to the Temple of the White Sulde of Genghis Khan, in Uxin, Inner Mongolia, China.jpg|thumb|left|Temple of the [[Sülde Tngri|White Sulde]] of [[Genghis Khan]] in the town of [[Uxin Banner|Uxin]] in [[Inner Mongolia]], in the [[Ordos Desert|Mu Us Desert]]. The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and [[Mongolian folk religion]].{{refn|group=note|The White Sulde (White Spirit) is one of the two spirits of Genghis Khan (the other being the Black Sulde), represented either as his white or yellow horse or as a fierce warrior riding this horse. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. From the central sulde there are strings which hold tied light blue pieces of cloth with a few white ones. The wall is covered with all the names of the Mongol kins. The Chinese worship Genghis as the ancestral god of the [[Yuan dynasty]].}}]]
"The extent to which shamanism pervaded ancient Chinese society", says Paul R. Goldin (2005), "is a matter of scholarly dispute, but there can be no doubt that many communities relied upon the unique talents of shamans for their quotidian spiritual needs".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Mair | first1 = Victor H. | first2 = Nancy Shatzman | last2 = Steinhardt | first3 = Paul Rakita | last3 = Goldin | year = 2005 | title = Hawai'i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XdouAQAAIAAJ&q=China+shamanic+tradition | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | location = Honolulu | isbn = 978-0824827854 | ref = none | access-date = 9 August 2015 | archive-date = 15 February 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111722/https://books.google.com/books?id=XdouAQAAIAAJ&q=China+shamanic+tradition | url-status = live }}, p. 99</ref> The Chinese usage distinguishes the [[Chinese shamanism|Chinese ''wu'' tradition]] or "Wuism" as it was called by [[Jan Jakob Maria de Groot]]{{sfnb|De Groot|1892|pp=''passim'' vol. 6}} ({{lang-zh|巫教}} ''wūjiào''; properly shamanic, with control over the gods) from the [[tongji (spirit medium)|''tongji'' tradition]] ({{lang-zh|童乩}}; mediumship, without control of the godly movement), and from non-Han Chinese Altaic shamanisms ({{lang-zh|薩滿教}} ''sàmǎnjiào'') that are practised in northern provinces.

According to Andreea Chirita (2014), Confucianism itself, with its emphasis on hierarchy and ancestral rituals, derived from the shamanic discourse of the [[Shang dynasty]]. What Confucianism did was to marginalise the "dysfunctional" features of old shamanism. However, shamanic traditions continued uninterrupted within the folk religion and found precise and functional forms within Taoism.<ref name="Chirita2014">Andreea Chirita. ''[http://aflls.ucdc.ro/I_2014/2Ant.pdf Antagonistic Discourses on Shamanic Folklore in Modern China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527231650/http://aflls.ucdc.ro/I_2014/2Ant.pdf |date=27 May 2015 }}''. On: ''Annals of Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University'', issue 1, 2014.</ref>

In the Shang and [[Zhou dynasty]], shamans had a role in the political hierarchy, and were represented institutionally by the Ministry of Rites ({{lang-zh|大宗伯}}). The emperor was considered the supreme shaman, intermediating between the three realms of heaven, earth and man. The mission of a shaman ({{lang-zh|巫}} ''[[wu (shaman)|wu]]'') is "to repair the dis-functionalities occurred in nature and generated after the sky had been separated from earth":<ref name="Chirita2014"/>

{{blockquote|The female shamans called ''wu'' as well as the male shamans called ''xi'' represent the voice of spirits, repair the natural dis-functions, foretell the future based on dreams and the art of divination ... "a historical science of the future", whereas shamans are able to observe the yin and the yang&nbsp;...}}

Since the 1980s the practice and study of shamanism has undergone a massive revival in Chinese religion as a means to repair the world to a harmonious whole after industrialisation.<ref name="Chirita2014"/> Shamanism is viewed by many scholars as the foundation for the emergence of civilisation, and the shaman as "teacher and spirit" of peoples. The Chinese Society for Shamanic Studies was founded in [[Jilin City]] in 1988.<ref name="KunShi2006">Kun Shi. ''[http://buddhabookclub.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/6/4/4264863/survey_of_shamanic_studies_in_china-1993-updated_2007.pdf "Shamanistic Studies in China: A Preliminary Survey of the Last Decade"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926115658/http://buddhabookclub.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/6/4/4264863/survey_of_shamanic_studies_in_china-1993-updated_2007.pdf |date=26 September 2017 }}''. On: ''Shaman'', vol. 1, nos. 1–2. Ohio State University, 1993, updated in 2006. pp. 104–106</ref>

Nuo folk religion is a system of the Chinese folk religion with distinct institutions and cosmology present especially in central-southern China. It arose as an [[exorcism|exorcistic]] religious movement, and it is interethnic but also intimately connected to the [[Tujia people]].{{sfnb|Li|2016}}

====Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters====
{{Main|Confucianism|Taoism|Chinese ritual mastery traditions}}
[[File:Fushou (Fortune and Longevity) Taoist Temple at Tianchi (Heavenly Lake)  in Fukang, Changji, Xinjiang.jpg|thumb|Temple of Fortune and Longevity, at the [[Heavenly Lake of Tianshan]] in [[Fukang]], [[Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture|Changji]], [[Xinjiang]]. It is an example of Taoist temple which hosts various chapels dedicated to popular gods.{{refn|group=note|The main axis of the Taoist Temple of Fortune and Longevity ({{lang-zh|福壽觀}} ''Fúshòuguān'') has a Temple of the Three Patrons ({{lang-zh|三皇殿}} ''Sānhuángdiàn'') and a Temple of the Three Purities ({{lang-zh|三清殿}} ''Sānqīngdiàn'', the orthodox gods of Taoist theology). Side chapels include a Temple of the God of Wealth ({{lang-zh|財神殿}} ''Cáishéndiàn''), a Temple of the Lady ({{lang-zh|娘娘殿}} ''Niángniángdiàn''), a Temple of the Eight Immortals ({{lang-zh|八仙殿}} ''Bāxiāndiàn''), and a Temple of the (God of) Thriving Culture ({{lang-zh|文昌殿}} ''Wénchāngdiàn''). The Fushou Temple belongs to the [[Taoist Church]] and was built in 2005 on the site of a former Buddhist temple, the Iron Tiles Temple, which stood there until it was destituted and destroyed in 1950. Part of the roof tiles of the new temples are from the ruins of the former temple excavated in 2002.}}]]
[[File:靈安壇大法師.JPG|thumb|Folk ritual masters conducting a ceremony.]]
[[File:Jiangyin wenmiao dachengdian.jpg|thumb|The Temple of the God of Culture ({{lang-zh|文廟}} ''wénmiào'') of [[Jiangyin]], [[Wuxi]], [[Jiangsu]]. In this temple the ''Wéndì'' ({{lang-zh|文帝}}, "God of Culture") enshrined is [[Confucius]].]]

Confucianism and Taoism—which are formalised, ritual, doctrinal or philosophical traditions—can be considered both as embedded within the larger category of Chinese religion, or as separate religions. In fact, one can practise certain folk cults and espouse the tenets of Confucianism as a philosophical framework, Confucian theology instructing to uphold the moral order through the worship of gods and ancestors<ref>Littlejohn, 2010. pp. 35–37</ref> that is the way of connecting to the [[Tian]] and awakening to its harmony (''[[li (Confucian)|li]]'', "[[ṛta|rite]]").<ref>Tay, 2010. p. 100</ref>

Folk temples and ancestral shrines on special occasions may choose Confucian liturgy (that is called {{lang-zh|儒}} ''rú'', or sometimes {{lang-zh|正統}} ''zhèngtǒng'', meaning "[[orthopraxy|orthoprax]]" ritual style) led by Confucian "sages of rites" ({{lang-zh|禮生}} ''lǐshēng'') who in many cases are the elders of a local community. Confucian liturgies are alternated with Taoist liturgies and popular ritual styles.{{sfnb|Clart|2003|pp=3-5}}

There are many organised groups of the folk religion that adopt Confucian liturgy and identity, for example the [[Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition]] or phoenix churches (Luanism), or the [[Confucian churches]], schools and fellowships such as the ''Yīdān xuétáng'' ({{lang-zh|一耽學堂}}) of [[Beijing]],<ref>Sébastien Billioud. ''Confucian Revival and the Emergence of "Jiaohua Organizations": A Case Study of the Yidan Xuetang''. On: ''Modern China'', vol. 37, no. 3, 2011, pp. 286–314. DOI: 10.1177/0097700411398574</ref> the ''Mèngmǔtáng'' ({{lang-zh|孟母堂}}) of [[Shanghai]],<ref name="Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29">Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29</ref> the Confucian Fellowship ({{lang-zh|儒教道壇}} ''Rújiào Dàotán'') in northern Fujian, and ancestral temples of the Kong (Confucius) lineage operating as well as Confucian-teaching churches.<ref name="Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29"/> In November 2015 a national [[Kongshenghui|Church of Confucius]] was established with the contribution of many Confucian leaders.

Scholar and Taoist priest [[Kristofer Schipper]] defines Taoism as a "liturgical framework" for the development of local religion.<ref name="Wu2014">Nengchang Wu. ''[https://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion |date=27 August 2017 }}''. On: ''Review of Religion and Chinese Society'' 1 (2014), 104–127. pp. 105–106</ref> Some [[Taoist schools|currents]] of Taoism are deeply interwoven with the Chinese folk religion, especially the [[Zhengyi Taoism|Zhengyi]] school, developing aspects of local cults within their doctrines;<ref name="Wu2014"/> however Taoists always highlight the distinction between their traditions and those which are not Taoist. Priests of Taoism are called ''daoshi'' ({{lang-zh|道士}}), literally meaning "masters of the [[Tao]]", otherwise commonly translated as the "Taoists", as common followers and folk believers who are not part of Taoist orders are not identified as such.

Taoists of the Zhengyi school, who are called ''sǎnjū dàoshi'' ({{lang-zh|散居道士}}) or ''huǒjū dàoshi'' ({{lang-zh|火居道士}}), respectively meaning "scattered daoshi" and "daoshi living at home (hearth)", because they can get married and perform the profession of priests as a part-time occupation, may perform rituals of offering (''jiao''), thanks-giving, propitiation, exorcism and rites of passage for local communities' temples and private homes.<ref name="Davis-Daoists">Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture''. ¶ [http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests Daoist priests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164605/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests |date=3 March 2014 }}, [http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist) vernacular priests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164603/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist) |date=3 March 2014 }}</ref> Local gods of local cultures are often incorporated into their altars.<ref name="Davis-Daoists"/> The Zhengyi Taoists are trained by other priests of the same sect, and historically received formal ordination by the [[Celestial Master]],<ref name="Pas, 2014. p. 259">Pas, 2014. p. 259</ref> although the 63rd Celestial Master Zhang Enpu fled to Taiwan in the 1940s during the [[Chinese Civil War]].

[[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|Lineages of ritual masters]] ({{lang-zh|法師}} ''fashi''), also referred to as practitioners of "Faism", also called "Folk Taoism" or (in southeast China) "Red Taoism", operate within the Chinese folk religion but outside any institution of official Taoism.<ref name="Pas, 2014. p. 259"/> The ritual masters, who have the same role of the ''sanju daoshi'' within the fabric of society, are not considered Taoist priests by the ''daoshi'' of Taoism who trace their lineage to the Celestial Masters and by Taoists officially registered with the state Taoist Church. ''Fashi'' are defined as of "[[kataphatic]]" (filling) character in opposition to professional Taoists who are "[[kenotic]]" (of emptying, or [[apophatic theology|apophatic]], character).<ref>Sarah Coakley. ''Religion and the Body''. Book 8 of ''Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0521783860}}. p. 246</ref>

===Organised folk religious sects===
{{Main|Chinese salvationist religions}}
[[File:Main temple of the City of the Eight Symbols (八卦城), the holy see of Weixinism (唯心教) in Hebi (鹤壁市), Henan, China.jpg|thumb|The City of the Eight Symbols in [[Qi County, Hebi|Qi]], [[Hebi]], is the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in [[Henan]].]]

China has a long history of sect traditions characterised by a [[soteriology|soteriological]] and [[eschatology|eschatological]] character, often called "salvationist religions" ({{lang-zh|救度宗教}} ''jiùdù zōngjiào'').{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}}  They emerged from the common religion but are not part of the lineage cult of [[ancestor]]s and [[progenitor]]s, nor the communal deity religion of village temples, neighbourhood, corporations, or national temples.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|pp=19–20}}

[[Prasenjit Duara]] has termed them "redemptive societies" ({{lang-zh|救世團體}} ''jiùshì tuántǐ''),{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=17}}{{sfnb|Clart|2014|p=395}} while modern Chinese scholarship describes them as "folk religious sects" ({{lang-zh|民間宗教}} ''mínjiān zōngjiào'', {{lang-zh|民間教門}} ''mínjiān jiàomén'' or {{lang-zh|民间教派}} ''mínjiān jiàopài''),{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=12}} abandoning the derogatory term used by imperial officials, ''xiéjiào'' ({{lang-zh|邪教}}), "evil religion".{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=23}}

They are characterised by several elements, including [[egalitarianism]]; foundation by a charismatic figure; direct divine revelation; a [[millenarianism|millenarian]] eschatology and voluntary path of [[salvation]]; an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and cultivation; and an expansive orientation through good deeds, [[evangelism]] and [[philanthropy]].{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}} Their practices are focused on improving morality, body cultivation, and recitation of scriptures.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}}

Many of the redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=29}} This group of religions includes{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|pp=4–6}} [[Yiguandao]] and other sects belonging to the [[Xiantiandao]] ({{lang-zh|先天道}} "Way of Former Heaven"), Jiugongdao ({{lang-zh|九宮道}} "Way of the Nine Palaces"), various proliferations of the [[Luo teaching]], the [[Zaili teaching]], and the more recent [[De teaching]], Weixinist, [[Xuanyuan teaching|Xuanyuan]] and [[Tiandi teachings]], the latter two focused respectively on the worship of [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]] and the universal God. Also, the [[qigong]] schools are developments of the same religious context.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=11}}

These folk sectarian offer different world views and compete for influence. To take one example, [[Yiguandao]] focuses on personal salvation through inner work and considers itself the most valid "Way of Heaven" ({{lang-zh|天道}} ''Tiāndào''). Yiguandao offers its own "[[Xiantiandao|Way of Former Heaven]]" ({{lang-zh|先天道}} ''Xiāntiāndào''), that is, a cosmological definition of the state of things prior to creation, in unity with God. It regards the other [[Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition|Luanism]], a cluster of churches which focus on social morality through refined Confucian ritual to worship the gods, as the "Way of Later Heaven" ({{lang-zh|後天道}} ''Hòutiāndào''), that is the cosmological state of created things.{{sfnb|Clart|1997|pp=12–13 & ''passim''}}

These movements were banned in the early [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican China]] and later Communist China. Many of them still remain illegal, underground or unrecognised in [[China]], while others—specifically the De teaching, Tiandi teachings, Xuanyuan teaching, Weixinism and Yiguandao—have developed cooperation with mainland China's academic and non-governmental organisations.<ref name="RCTC2014"/> The [[Sanyi teaching]] is an organised folk religion founded in the 16th century, present in the [[Putian]] region ([[Putian people|Xinghua]]) of [[Fujian]] where it is legally recognised.<ref name="RCTC2014"/> Some of these sects began to register as branches of the state Taoist Association since the 1990s.<ref name="Goossaert, Palmer. 2011. p. 347">Goossaert, Palmer. 2011. p. 347, quote: "[Since the 1990s]&nbsp;... a number of ... [[Chinese salvationist religions|lay salvationist groups]] (such as Xiantiandao in southern China and Hongyangism [{{lang-zh|弘陽教}} ''Hóngyáng jiào''] in Hebei) also successfully registered with the Taoist association, thus gaining legitimacy".</ref>

A further distinctive type of sects of the folk religion, that are possibly the same as the positive "secret sects", are the martial sects. They combine two aspects: the ''wénchǎng'' ({{lang-zh|文場}} "cultural field"), that is the doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, initiatory and ritual patterns, and that is usually kept secretive; and the ''wǔchǎng'' ({{lang-zh|武場}} "martial field"), that is the body cultivation practice and that is usually the "public face" of the sect.<ref name="Ambrosi2013">Raymond Ambrosi. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150104152959/http://www.goethe.de/ins/cn/en/lp/kul/mag/dis/swl/11980640.html Towards the City! Towards the Country! Old Martial Art Strengthens Social Cohesion in Chinese Rural Areas]''. Goethe-Institut China, 2013.</ref> They were outlawed by Ming imperial edicts that continued to be enforced until the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 20th century.<ref name="Ambrosi2013"/> An example of martial sect is [[Meihuaism]] ({{lang-zh|梅花教}} ''Méihuājiào'', "Plum Flowers"), that has become very popular throughout northern China.<ref name="Ambrosi2013"/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Ambrosi | first = Raymond P. | title = Interconnections amongst Folk Religions, Civil Society and Community Development: Meihua Boxers as Constructors of Social Trust and the Agrarian Public Sphere | journal = Modern China | date = 2015}}</ref> In [[Taiwan]], virtually all of the "redemptive societies" operate freely since the late 1980s.

====Tiandi teachings====
The Tiandi teachings are a religion that encompasses two branches, the Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue ({{lang-zh|天德聖教}} ''Tiāndé shèngjiào'') and the Church of the Heavenly Deity ({{lang-zh|天帝教}} ''Tiāndìjiào''), both emerged from the teachings of Xiao Changming and Li Yujie, disseminated in the early 20th century.<ref name="Vermander">Benoit Vermander. ''[http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf Christianity and the Taiwanese Religious Landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502223949/http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf |date=2 May 2014 }}''. On: ''The Way'', 39, 1999. London Society of Jesus. pp. 129–139</ref> The latter is actually an outgrowth of the former established in the 1980s.<ref name="Vermander"/>

The religions focus on the worship of ''Tiandi'' ({{lang-zh|天帝}}), the "Heavenly Deity" or "Heavenly Emperor",<ref name="Vermander"/> on health through the proper cultivation of [[qi]],<ref name="Vermander"/> and teach a style of qigong named ''Tianren qigong''.<ref>Evelyne Micollier. ''Realignments in Religion and Health Practices: An Approach to the "New Religions" in Taiwanese Society''. On: ''China Perspectives'', 16, 1998. pp. 34–40</ref> According to scholars, Tiandi teachings derive from the [[Taoism|Taoist]] tradition of [[Mount Hua|Huashan]],<ref>Ju Keyi, Lu Xianlong. ''Tiandi jiao: The Daoist Connection''. On: ''Journal of Daoist Studies''. Vol. 7, 2014. p. 195</ref> where Li Yujie studied for eight years.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=27}} The Church of the Heavenly Deity is very active both in Taiwan and mainland China, where it has high-level links.<ref name="Vermander"/>

====Weixinism====
{{Main|Weixinism}}
Weixinism ({{zh|c=唯心聖教|p=Wéixīn shèngjiào|l=Holy Religion of the Only Heart}} or {{zh|c=唯心教|p=Wéixīnjiào|labels=no}}) is a religion primarily focused on the "orthodox lineages of ''[[Yijing]]'' and [[feng shui]]",<ref>"[http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5 Weixinism propagates Chinese culture and Yi-Ching]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171231234558/http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5 Archived on 31 December 2017].</ref> the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]],<ref name="worldpeace">"[http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10 Grand Master Hun Yuan leads Weixinism for world peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203559/http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10 Archived on 14 December 2017].</ref> and worship of the "three great ancestors" ([[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]], [[Yan Emperor|Yandi]] and [[Chi You|Chiyou]]).<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx Honoring the contribution of the Three-Great-Chinese-Ancestor Culture to develop world peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203516/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx Archived on 14 December 2017].</ref> The movement promotes the restoration of the authentic roots of the Chinese civilization and [[Chinese unification]].<ref name="worldpeace"/>

The Weixinist Church, whose headquarters are in Taiwan, is also active in [[Mainland China]] in the key birthplaces of the Chinese culture. It has links with the government of [[Henan]] where it has established the "City of Eight Trigrams" templar complex on Yunmeng Mountain (of the [[Yan Mountains]]),<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx Build the City of the Eight Trigrams on Yunmeng Mountain, integrate the differences within Chinese culture, and support the union of the Chinese people]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620172656/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx Archived on 20 June 2017].</ref> and it has also built temples in [[Hebei]].<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx Build temples for the Three Great Chinese Ancestors, solidify the national union, and pray together for Cross-Strait and worldwide peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620160927/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx Archived on 20 June 2017].</ref>

===Geographic and ethnic variations===

====North and south divides====
[[File:Baoshengdadi.jpg|thumb|Altar to [[Baoshengdadi]], whose cult is mostly [[Fujian]]ese and [[Taiwan]]ese.]]
Recent scholarly works have found basic differences between north and south folk religion.<ref name=GoossaertNCR>{{cite journal | last = Goossaert | first = Vincent | title = Is There a North China Religion? A Review Essay | journal = Journal of Chinese Religions | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–93 | date = 2011 | issn = 0737-769X | doi = 10.1179/073776911806153907 | s2cid = 170749557 }}</ref> Folk religion of southern and southeastern provinces is focused on the [[Chinese kin|lineages]] and [[Chinese lineage associations|their churches]] (''zōngzú xiéhuì'' {{lang-zh|宗族協會}}) focusing on ancestral gods, while the folk religion of central-northern China ([[North China Plain]]) hinges on the communal worship of [[tutelary deity|tutelary deities]] of creation and nature as identity symbols by villages populated by families of different surnames.<ref name="Overmyer, 2009. pp. 12-13"/> They are structured into "communities of the god(s)" (''shénshè'' {{lang-zh|神社}}, or ''huì'' {{lang-zh|會}}, "association"),{{sfnb|Overmyer|2009|p=xii}} which organise temple ceremonies (''[[miaohui]]'' {{lang-zh|廟會}}), involving processions and pilgrimages,<ref>Overmyer, 2009. p. 10: "There were and are many such pilgrimages to regional and national temples in China, and of course such pilgrimages cannot always be clearly distinguished from festivals for the gods or saints of local communities, because such festivals can involve participants from surrounding villages and home communities celebrating the birthdays or death days of their patron gods or saints, whatever their appeal to those from other areas. People worship and petition at both pilgrimages and local festivals for similar reasons. The chief differences between the two are the central role of a journey in pilgrimages, the size of the area from which participants are attracted, and the role of pilgrimage societies in organizing the long trips that may be involved.&nbsp;... pilgrimage in China is also characterized by extensive planning and organization both by the host temples and those visiting them."</ref> and led by indigenous ritual masters (''fashi'') who are often hereditary and linked to secular authority.{{refn|group=note|Overmyer (2009, p. 73), says that from the late 19th to the 20th century few professional priests (i.e. licensed Taoists) were involved in local religion in the central and northern provinces of China, and discusses various types of folk ritual specialists including: the ''yuehu'' {{lang-zh|樂戶}}, the ''zhuli'' {{lang-zh|主禮}} (p. 74), the ''shenjia'' {{lang-zh|神家}} ("godly families", hereditary specialists of gods and their rites; p. 77), then (p. 179) the ''yinyang'' or ''fengshui'' masters (as "...&nbsp;folk Zhengyi Daoists of the Lingbao scriptural tradition, living as ordinary peasants. They earn their living both as a group from performing public rituals, and individually [...] by doing geomancy and calendrical consultations for ''fengshui'' and auspicious days"; quoting: S. Jones (2007), ''Ritual and Music of North China: Shawm Bands in Shanxi''). He also describes shamans or media known by different names: ''mapi'' {{lang-zh|馬裨}}, ''wupo'' {{lang-zh|巫婆}}, ''shen momo'' {{lang-zh|神嬤嬤}} or ''shen han'' {{lang-zh|神漢}} (p. 87); ''xingdao de'' {{lang-zh|香道的}} ("practitioners of the incense way"; p. 85); village ''xiangtou'' {{lang-zh|香頭}} ("incense heads"; p. 86); ''matong'' {{lang-zh|馬童}} (the same as southern ''[[tongji (spirit medium)|jitong]]''), either ''wushen'' {{lang-zh|巫神}} (possessed by gods) or ''shenguan'' {{lang-zh|神官}} (possessed by immortals; pp. 88–89); or "godly sages" (''shensheng'' {{lang-zh|神聖}}; p. 91). Further (p. 76), he discusses for example the ''sai'' {{lang-zh|賽}}, ceremonies of thanksgiving to the gods in [[Shanxi]] with roots in the [[Song dynasty|Song era]], whose leaders very often corresponded to local political authorities. This pattern continues today with former village Communist Party secretaries elected as temple association bosses (p. 83). He concludes (p. 92): "In sum, since at least the early twentieth century the majority of local ritual leaders in north China have been products of their own or nearby communities. They have special skills in organization, ritual performance or interaction with the gods, but none are full-time ritual specialists; they have all 'kept their day jobs'! As such they are exemplars of ordinary people organizing and carrying out their own cultural traditions, persistent traditions with their own structure, functions and logic that deserve to be understood as such."}}

Northern and southern folk religions also have a different [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], of which the northern one is composed of more ancient gods of [[Chinese mythology]].<ref>Overmyer, 2009. p. 3: "...&nbsp;there are significant differences between aspects of local religion in the south and north, one of which is the gods who are worshiped."; p. 33: "...&nbsp;the veneration in the north of ancient deities attested to in pre-Han sources, deities such as Nüwa, Fuxi and Shennong, the legendary founder of agriculture and herbal medicine. In some instances these gods were worshiped at places believed to be where they originated, with indications of grottoes, temples and festivals for them, some of which continue to exist or have been revived. Of course, these gods were worshiped elsewhere in China as well, though perhaps not with the same sense of original geographical location."</ref> Furthermore, [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk religious sects]] have historically been more successful in the central plains and in the northeastern provinces than in southern China, and central-northern folk religion shares characteristics of some of the sects, such as the heavy importance of [[Chinese mother goddess worship|mother goddess worship]] and shamanism,<ref>Overmyer, 2009. p. 15: "Popular religious sects with their own forms of organization, leaders, deities, rituals, beliefs and scripture texts were active throughout the Ming and Qing periods, particularly in north China. Individuals and families who joined them were promised special divine protection in this life and the next by leaders who functioned both as ritual masters and missionaries. These sects were more active in some communities than in others, but in principle were open to all who responded to these leaders and believed in their efficacy and teachings, so some of these groups spread to wide areas of the country.&nbsp;... significant for us here though is evidence for the residual influence of sectarian beliefs and practices on non-sectarian community religion where the sects no longer exist, particularly the feminization of deities by adding to their names the characters ''mu'' or ''Laomu'', Mother or Venerable Mother, as in ''Guanyin Laomu'', ''Puxianmu'', ''Dizangmu'', etc., based on the name of the chief sectarian deity, ''Wusheng Laomu'', the Eternal Venerable Mother. ''Puxian'' and ''Dizang'' are bodhisattvas normally considered 'male', though in Buddhist theory such gender categories do not really apply. This practice of adding ''mu'' to the names of deities, found already in Ming period sectarian scriptures called ''baojuan'' 'precious volumes' from the north, does not occur in the names of southern deities."</ref> as well as their scriptural transmission.<ref name=GoossaertNCR/>{{rp|92}} [[Confucian churches]] as well have historically found much resonance among the population of the northeast; in the 1930s the [[Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue]] alone aggregated at least 25% of the population of the state of [[Manchukuo|Manchuria]]{{sfnb|Ownby|2008}} and contemporary [[Shandong]] has been analysed as an area of rapid growth of folk Confucian groups.{{sfnb|Payette|2016}}

Along the southeastern coast, ritual functions of the folk religion are reportedly dominated by Taoism, both in registered and unregistered forms ([[Zhengyi Dao|Zhengyi Taoism]] and unrecognised ''fashi'' orders), which since the 1990s has developed quickly in the area.<ref name="Chan, 2005. p. 93">Chan, 2005. p. 93. Quote: "By the early 1990s Daoist activities had become popular especially in rural areas, and began to get out of control as the line between legitimate Daoist activities and popular folk religious activities – officially regarded as feudal superstition – became blurred.&nbsp;... Unregulated activities can range from orthodox Daoist liturgy to shamanistic rites. The popularity of these Daoist activities underscores the fact that Chinese rural society has a long tradition of religiosity and has preserved and perpetuated Daoism regardless of official policy and religious institutions. With the growth of economic prosperity in rural areas, especially in the coastal provinces where Daoist activities are concentrated, with a more liberal policy on religion, and with the revival of local cultural identity, Daoism – be it the officially sanctioned variety or Daoist activities which are beyond the edge of the official Daoist body – seems to be enjoying a strong comeback, at least for the time being."</ref><ref name="Overmyer-2009-southeast-Daoism">Overmyer, 2009. p. 185 about Taoism in southeastern China: "Ethnographic research into the temple festivals and communal rituals celebrated within these god cults has revealed the widespread distribution of Daoist ritual traditions in this area, including especially Zhengyi (Celestial Master Daoism) and variants of Lushan Daoist ritual traditions. Various Buddhist ritual traditions (Pu’anjiao, Xianghua married monks and so on) are practiced throughout this region, particularly for requiem services". (quoting K. Dean (2003) ''Local Communal Religion in Contemporary Southeast China'', in D. L. Overmyer (ed.) ''Religion in China Today''. China Quarterly Special Issues, New Series, No. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 32–34.)</ref>

Goossaert talks of this distinction, although recognising it as an oversimplification, of a "Taoist south" and a "village-religion/Confucian centre-north",<ref name=GoossaertNCR/>{{rp|47}} with the northern context also characterised by important orders of "folk Taoist" ritual masters, one of which are the {{lang-zh|陰陽生}} ''yīnyángshēng'' ("sages of yin and yang"),<ref name=Jones2011>{{cite journal | last = Jones | first = Stephen | title = Yinyang: Household Daoists of North China and Their Rituals | journal = Daoism: Religion, History & Society | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–114 | date = 2011 }}</ref><ref name=GoossaertNCR/>{{rp|86}} and sectarian traditions,<ref name=GoossaertNCR/>{{rp|92}} and also by a low influence of Buddhism and official Taoism.<ref name=GoossaertNCR/>{{rp|90}}

The [[Northeast China folk religion|folk religion of northeast China]] has unique characteristics deriving from the interaction of Han religion with [[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]] and [[Manchu shamanism]]s; these include ''chūmǎxiān'' ({{lang-zh|出馬仙}} "riding for the immortals") shamanism, the worship of foxes and other [[animal worship|zoomorphic deities]], and the [[Huxian|Fox Gods]] ({{lang-zh|狐神}} ''Húshén'')—Great Lord of the Three Foxes ({{lang-zh|胡三太爺}} ''Húsān Tàiyé'') and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes ({{lang-zh|胡三太奶}} ''Húsān Tàinǎi'')—at the head of pantheons.<ref name="Deng-chumaxian">{{cite thesis | last = Deng | first = Claire Qiuju | date = 2014 | title = Action-Taking Gods: Animal Spirit Shamanism in Liaoning, China | type = Master in East Asian Studies | publisher = McGill University, Department of East Asian Studies | location = Montreal | url = http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1514765798473~395 | access-date = 1 January 2018 | archive-date = 1 January 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180101001735/http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1514765798473~395 | url-status = live }}</ref> Otherwise, in the [[religion in Inner Mongolia|religious context of Inner Mongolia]] there has been a significant integration of Han Chinese into the traditional folk religion of the region.

In recent years{{when|date=March 2021}} there has also been an assimilation of deities from [[Tibetan folk religion]], especially wealth gods.<ref>Mark Juergensmeyer, Wade Clark Roof. ''Encyclopedia of Global Religion''. SAGE Publications, 2011. {{ISBN|1452266565}}. p. 202</ref> In [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], across broader [[western China]], and in [[Inner Mongolia]], there has been a growth of the cult of [[Gesar]] with the explicit support of the Chinese government, a cross-ethnic Han-Tibetan, Mongol and Manchu deity (the Han identify him as an aspect of the god of war analogically with [[Guan Yu|Guandi]]) and [[culture hero]] whose mythology is embodied as a culturally important [[epic poem]].<ref>Benjamin Penny. ''Religion and Biography in China and Tibet''. Routledge, 2013. {{ISBN|1136113940}}. pp. 185–187</ref>

===="Taoised" indigenous religions of ethnic minorities====
[[File:Benzhu Sanxing, Dali, Yunnan.jpg|thumb|The pan-Chinese [[Sanxing (deities)|Sanxing]] (Three Star Gods) represented in [[Bai people|Bai]] iconographic style at a [[Benzhu]] temple on Jinsuo Island, in [[Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture|Dali]], [[Yunnan]].]]
Chinese religion has both influenced, and in turn has been influenced by, [[indigenous religions]] of ethnic groups that the Han Chinese have encountered along their ethnogenetic history. Seiwert (1987) finds evidence of pre-Chinese religions in the folk religion of certain southeastern provinces such as Fujian and Taiwan, especially in the local ''wu'' and lineages of ordained ritual masters.<ref name=Seiwert1987>{{citation | last = Seiwert | first = Hubert | chapter = On the religions of national minorities in the context of China's religious history | pages = 41–51 | title = Ethnic Minorities in China: Tradition and Transform. Papers of the 2nd Interdisciplinary Congress of Sinology/Ethnology, St. Augustin | editor-first = Thomas | editor-last = Heberer | editor-link= Thomas Heberer | location = Aachen | publisher = Herodot | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-3922868682 }}. [https://www.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/religionswissenschaft/Pdf/Publikationen_Seiwert/Seiwert__-__On_the_Religions_of_National_Minorities_in_the_Context_of_China_s_Religious_History.pdf Available online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806230928/https://www.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/religionswissenschaft/Pdf/Publikationen_Seiwert/Seiwert__-__On_the_Religions_of_National_Minorities_in_the_Context_of_China_s_Religious_History.pdf |date=6 August 2016 }}.</ref>{{rp|44}}

A process of [[sinicization]], or more appropriately a "Taoisation", is also the more recent experience of the indigenous religions of some distinct [[ethnic minorities of China]], especially southwestern people. Chinese Taoists gradually penetrate within the indigenous religions of such peoples, in some cases working side by side with indigenous priests, in other cases taking over the latter's function and integrating them by requiring their ordination as Taoists.<ref name=Seiwert1987/>{{rp|45}} Usually, indigenous ritual practices remain unaffected and are adopted into Taoist liturgy, while indigenous gods are identified with Chinese gods.<ref name=Seiwert1987/>{{rp|47}} Seiwert discusses this phenomenon of "merger into Chinese folk religion" not as a mere elimination of non-Chinese indigenous religions, but rather as a cultural re-orientation. Local priests of southwestern ethnic minorities often acquire prestige by identifying themselves as Taoists and adopting Taoist holy texts.<ref name=Seiwert1987/>{{rp|47}}

Mou (2012) writes that "Taoism has formed an indissoluble bond" with indigenous religions of southwestern ethnic minorities, especially the Tujia, [[Yi people|Yi]] and [[Yao people|Yao]].{{sfnb|Mou|2012|p=57}} Seiwert mentions the [[Miao people|Miao]] of [[Hunan]].<ref name=Seiwert1987/>{{rp|45}} "Daogongism" is Taoism among the [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], directed by the ''dàogōng'' ({{lang-zh|道公}} "lords of the Tao") and it forms an established important aspect of the broader [[Zhuang folk religion]].<ref>Ya-ning Kao, ''Religious Revival among the Zhuang People in China: Practising "Superstition" and Standardizing a Zhuang Religion'' ''Journal of Current Chinese Affairs'', 43, 2, 107–144. 2014. {{ISSN|1868-4874}} (online), {{ISSN|1868-1026}} (print). p. 117</ref>

On the other hand, it is also true that in more recent years there has been a general revival of indigenous lineages of ritual masters without identification of these as Taoists and support from the state Chinese Taoist Church. An example is the revival of lineages of ''bimo'' ("scripture sages") priests among the Yi peoples. [[Bimoism]] has a tradition of theological literature and though clergy ordination, and this is among the reasons why it is taken in high consideration by the Chinese government.<ref>Olivia Kraef. ''Of Canons and Commodities: The Cultural Predicaments of Nuosu-Yi "Bimo Culture"''. On: ''Journal of Current Chinese Affairs'', 43, 2, 145–179. 2014. pp. 146–147</ref> Bamo Ayi (2001) attests that "since the early 1980s&nbsp;... minority policy turned away from promoting assimilation of Han ways".<ref name="Bamo Ayi">Bamo Ayi. [http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt896nd0h7&chunk.id=ch08&toc.id=ch08&brand=ucpress "On the Nature and Transmission of Bimo Knowledge in Liangshan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011202235/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt896nd0h7&chunk.id=ch08&toc.id=ch08&brand=ucpress |date=11 October 2016 }}. In: Harrell, Stevan, ed. ''Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.</ref>{{rp|118}}