Atheism

=== Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance ===

During the [[Early Middle Ages]], the [[Islamic world]] experienced a [[Islamic Golden Age|Golden Age]]. Along with advances in science and philosophy, Arab and Persian lands produced rationalists who were skeptical about revealed religion, such as [[Muhammad al Warraq]] (fl. 9th century), [[Ibn al-Rawandi]] (827–911), and [[Abu Bakr al-Razi]] ({{circa|865}}–925),<ref>While strongly critical of revealed religion, Abu Bakr al-Razi did accept the existence of God, who was one of his five 'eternal principles' (next to soul, matter, time, and place); see {{harvnb|Adamson|2021}}. Whether Muhammad al Warraq and Ibn al-Rawandi were merely skeptical freethinkers or full-blown atheists is not clear; see {{harvnb|Stroumsa|1999}}.</ref> as well as outspoken atheists such as [[al-Maʿarri]] (973–1058). Al-Ma'arri wrote and taught that religion itself was a "fable invented by the ancients"<ref name="Nicholson318">Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, 1962, ''A Literary History of the Arabs'', p. 318. Routledge</ref> and that humans were "of two sorts: those with brains, but no religion, and those with religion, but no brains".<ref>[http://www.sdsmt.edu/student-orgs/tfs/reading/freethought/islam.html Freethought Traditions in the Islamic World] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214102422/http://www.sdsmt.edu/student-orgs/tfs/reading/freethought/islam.html |date=February 14, 2012 }} by Fred Whitehead; also quoted in Cyril Glasse, (2001), ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 278. Rowman Altamira.</ref> Despite the fact that these authors were relatively prolific writers, little of their work survives, mainly being preserved through quotations and excerpts in later works by Muslim [[Apologetics|apologists]] attempting to refute them.<ref>''Al-Zandaqa Wal Zanadiqa'', by Mohammad Abd-El Hamid Al-Hamad, first edition 1999, Dar Al-Taliaa Al-Jadida, Syria (Arabic)</ref>

[[File:Titi Lucretii Cari De rerum natura.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|''De rerum natura'' by Lucretius, between 1475 and 1494.]]
In Europe, the espousal of atheistic views was rare during the Early Middle Ages and [[Middle Ages]] (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).<ref name="Zdybicka 2005 4">{{harvnb|Zdybicka|2005|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Anthropology of Religion, Witchcraft, and Magic |edition= 2nd|last1= Stein|first1= Rebecca L.|last2=Stein|first2=Phillip L. |year= 2007|publisher= Allyn & Bacon|location= |asin= B004VX3Z6S|page= 219}}</ref> There were, however, movements within this period that furthered heterodox conceptions of the Christian god, including differing views of the nature, transcendence, and knowability of God. [[William of Ockham]] inspired anti-metaphysical tendencies with his [[nominalism|nominalist]] limitation of human knowledge to singular objects, and asserted that the divine [[essence]] could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect. Sects deemed heretical such as the [[Waldensians]] were also accused of being atheistic.<ref name="Schultz 2016 p. 39">{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=T. |title=Assault on the Remnant: The Advent Movement The Spirit of Prophecy and Rome's Trojan Horse |publisher=Dog Ear Publishing |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4575-4765-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zr1pDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |access-date=2023-03-03 |page=39 |edition=Expanded |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406110524/https://books.google.com/books?id=zr1pDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref> The resulting division between [[Faith and rationality|faith and reason]] influenced later radical and reformist theologians.<ref name="Zdybicka 2005 4" />

The [[Renaissance]] did much to expand the scope of free thought and skeptical inquiry. Individuals such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] sought experimentation as a means of explanation, and opposed [[Appeal to authority|arguments from religious authority]]. Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Bonaventure des Périers]], [[Michel de Montaigne]], and [[François Rabelais]].<ref name="gordonstein" />