Philosophy

=== Other major branches ===
{{See also|List of philosophies}}
There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Stambaugh|1987|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-overview Philosophy: An Overview]}} |2={{harvnb|Phillips|2010|p=16}} |3={{harvnb|Ramos|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=y2XkGpGBzbsC&pg=PA4 4]}} |4={{harvnb|Shand|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA9 9–10]}} }}</ref>

[[Aesthetics]] in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of [[beauty]] and other aesthetic properties, like [[the sublime]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 174]}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} |3={{harvnb|Janaway|2005|p=9|loc=Aesthetics, History Of}} }}</ref> Although it is often treated together with the [[Aesthetics#Aesthetics and the philosophy of art|philosophy of art]], aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Nanay|2019|p=4}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }}</ref> In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and [[nature]]".<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kelly|1998|p=ix}} |2={{harvnb|Riedel|1999}} }}</ref> A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} |2={{harvnb|Sartwell|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/ Lead Section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity]}} }}</ref> Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and [[aesthetic judgment|judgments]]. Further topics include the essence of [[works of art]] and the processes involved in creating them.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 174]}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }}</ref>

The [[philosophy of language]] studies the nature and function of [[language]]. It examines the concepts of [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]], [[reference]], and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human [[thought]] and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Language}} |2={{harvnb|Russell|Fara|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=czr880lvAPIC&pg=PR2 ii, 1–2]}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in [[analytic philosophy]] due to the works of [[Frege]] and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal [[truth conditions]] of sentences{{efn|The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.{{sfn|Birner|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQ3KPKY1hkC&pg=PT33 33]}}}} and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with [[speech act theory]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wolf|2023|loc=§§ 1.a-b, 3–4}} |2={{harvnb|Ifantidou|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4bKKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 12]}} }}</ref>

The [[philosophy of mind]] studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mH12kYm1RKAC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} |2={{harvnb|Crumley|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}} }}</ref> It aims to understand different types of [[conscious]] and [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] [[mental states]], like [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, [[intention]]s, [[feeling]]s, [[sense|sensations]], and free will.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Mind}} |2={{harvnb|Heidemann|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6pTJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 140]}} }}</ref> An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The [[mind-body problem]] is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are [[materialism]], which assumes that matter is more fundamental; [[idealism]], which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and [[Mind–body dualism|dualism]], which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]], which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 9, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weir|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jUXAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 10–11]}} |3={{harvnb|Shiraev|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r4xBJXxnnx8C&pg=PA83 83–84]}} |4={{harvnb|Polger|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> The mind-body problem is closely related to the [[hard problem of consciousness]], which asks how the physical brain can produce [[Qualia|qualitatively subjective experiences.]]<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem}} }}</ref>

The [[philosophy of religion]] investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with [[religion]]. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the [[divine]], and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of [[worldview]]s that reject religious doctrines.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 5.2}} |2={{harvnb|Burns|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWU9DwAAQBAJ i, 1–3]}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} |4={{harvnb|Meister|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 1}} "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 5.1.1}} and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 6}} It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} }}</ref> It differs from [[theology]] since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bayne|2018|pp=1–2}} |2={{harvnb|Louth|Thielicke|2014}} }}</ref>

The [[philosophy of science]] examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from [[pseudoscience]]. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} |2={{harvnb|Kitcher|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Losee|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lQN6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3]}} |4={{harvnb|Wei|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U2wNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} |5={{harvnb|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=2–3}}}}</ref> Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=7}} "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=5}} and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"{{sfn|Papineau|2005|pp=855–856}} It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the [[natural sciences]] and the philosophy of the [[social sciences]], with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Papineau|2005|p=852}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} }}</ref>

[[Political philosophy]] is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of [[politics]]. It investigates the nature and purpose of [[government]] and compares its different forms.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} |2={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}} |4={{harvnb|Bowle|Arneson|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |5={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} }}</ref> It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is [[Political legitimacy|legitimate]], rather than a form of simple violence.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} |2={{harvnb|Howard|2010|p=4}} }}</ref> In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and [[legal rights]].{{sfn|Wolff|2006|pp=1–2}} Other topics are [[justice]], [[liberty]], [[Social equality|equality]], [[sovereignty]], and [[nationalism]].{{sfn|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from [[political science]], which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} }}</ref> Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Subfields of Ethics}} Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are [[liberalism]], [[conservativism]], socialism, and [[anarchism]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought}} |2={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} }}</ref>