Muhammad Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Medinan years=== {{main|Muhammad in Medina}} According to the 19th-century orientalist [[Julius Wellhausen]], when Muhammad arrived in the city in 622, the Jewish tribes were allied with the two Arab tribes as subordinates. However, 21st-century historian Russ Rodgers disagrees. He argues that during Muhammad's [[Second pledge at al-Aqabah|second pledge of Aqaba]], members of the Arab tribes stated they had to break certain alliances with the Jews due to the nature of the pledge. Rodgers infers it was the Arab tribes who held a subservient or, at most, an equal position to the Jews, since otherwise, the Jews would have been drawn into the covenant.{{Sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=56β7}} ====Constitution of Medina==== {{See also|Constitution of Medina}} [[Ibn Ishaq]], following his narration of the ''[[hijrah]]'', maintains that Muhammad penned a text now referred to as the [[Constitution of Medina]] and divulges its assumed content without supplying any ''[[Hadith studies|isnad]]'' or corroboration.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}} The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,{{Sfn|Arjomand|2022|p=111}} but rather addressed tribal matters.{{Sfn|Rubin|2022|p=8}} While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}{{Sfn|Watt|1956|p=227}} ====Beginning of armed conflict==== {{Main|Battle of Badr}} {{See also|Military career of Muhammad|List of expeditions of Muhammad}} {{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}} In the early stages of his time in [[Medina]], Muhammad was optimistic that the Jewish people would acknowledge him as a Prophet and strove to obtain converts from their community.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367}} However, his efforts were unsuccessful and even faced ridicule, as the Jews perceived inconsistencies between the [[Quran]] and [[Hebrew Bible|their own scriptures]]. Consequently, the Quran accused the Jews of [[Tahrif|hiding and modifying]] parts of their holy texts. The Jewish criticism and refusal presented a danger to his prophetic claims, and, as a result, the views of Muhammad and the Quran towards them worsened.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367β8, 374}}{{Sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=212β3}}{{Sfn|Hodgson|2009|p=177}} This then led to the reorientation of the Muslim prayer direction, the ''[[qibla]]'', from [[Jerusalem]] to the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]].{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=368}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=69}} Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to settle scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them never materialized,{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} as well as the economic hardships he and the [[Muhajirun]] faced in Medina,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=161β2}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=71β3}} culminated in a new divine directiveβto fight the polytheists.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} Muhammad thus dispatched his followers to perform raids on the [[Quraysh]]'s [[Caravan (travellers)|trading caravans]].{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=162}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=73}} Certain Meccan followers of his were reluctant to participate, as it would mean attacking their own tribespeople. This vexed Muhammad, resulting in the revelation of Quran verse 2:216, among others, which asserts that fighting is good and has been made obligatory for them.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} After several months of failures, Muhammad managed to achieve his first successful raid, [[Raid on Nakhla|at Nakhla]], during a month that the pagans forbade themselves from shedding blood.{{sfn|Bogle|1998|p=12}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=76β83}} When the bountiful plunder was being brought back to him in Medina,{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} Muhammad was met with censure from the locals. He contended that his followers had misconstrued his command, and he postponed taking his one-fifth portion of the spoil until a verse was ultimately revealed, legitimizing the attack.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|pp=85β86}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2014|p=83}} *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=163}} *{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=101}}}} {{Quote box|quoted=true|bgcolor=#ffeeaa|align=right|width=25%|salign=right|quote=''Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without rightβonly because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished [[monastery|monasteries]], churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.''|source=β Quran (22:39β40)}} Two months hence, a grand Quraysh trade caravan, representing the investments of all Meccans, traveled home from [[Gaza City|Gaza]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=164}} Muhammad had tried to ambush it on its departure from Mecca but had failed.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=179}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=88}} When [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], the leader of the caravan, learned in [[Zarqa]] that Muhammad was preparing to raid the caravan again, he sent a messenger to Mecca for aid,{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=179}} and about 950 Meccans set out in response.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=164}} As the caravan approached the watering place of [[Badr, Saudi Arabia|Badr]], Abu Sufyan reconnoitred the town himself and confirmed his suspicion that Muhammad would launch his attack there. He thus diverted the caravan to the more difficult coastal road to the west, even though it meant depriving them of fresh water.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=181β2}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=90}} Upon the caravan's safe escape, part of the relief column withdrew, leaving behind 600β700 men.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=92}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=91}} Muhammad, upon discovering the presence of the remaining Meccans through their water carriers, ordered his troops to cover all the wells with sand and stones, on the advice of [[Habab ibn Mundhir|Hubab ibn al-Mundhir]],{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=95}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=93}} reserving one for themselves. And thus forcing the Meccans to fight for water.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=166}}{{sfn|Watt|1998|p=868}} [[Battle of Badr|The battle]] commenced with individual duels between warriors from both sides, which then escalated into a chaotic melee.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=185}} Although not participating in the combat, Muhammad inspired his followers with the promise of paradise if they died fighting. Many of the Quraysh were reluctant to kill their own kin, and just prior to midday, they succumbed to panic and ran away.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167}} Muhammad ordered the search for [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]]. A Muslim found him, beheaded him, and threw the head to Muhammad's feet who jubilantly exclaimed: "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for there is no other but He!"{{efn|see: *{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|p=186}} *{{harvnb|Forward|1997|p=23}} *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|p=98}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2014|p=101}}}} The battle concluded with the Quraysh suffering 49 to 70 losses, while the Muslims had 14 casualties.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=186}} The Muslims obtained considerable war spoils and a number of prisoners. [[Umar]] desired that all of them be slain, yet Muhammad resolved that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute any for whom no one was willing to pay.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167}} Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad immediately worked to solidify his authority. He instructed the removal of [[Asma bint Marwan]], who had criticized him in poetry.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}} One of his followers executed her while she slept with her children, the youngest still nursing in her arms. Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded the act as a service to God and his Messenger.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=171}}{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=114β5}} Shortly after, he called upon his followers to end the life of the centenarian poet [[Abu 'Afak|Abu Afak]].{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}} Simultaneously, Muhammad employed poets like [[Hassan ibn Thabit]] to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=175}} When inquired if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have extended his tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=196}} ==== Conflicts with Jewish tribes ==== {{further|Muhammad's views on Jews}} Following the [[Battle of Badr]], Muhammad revealed his intention to expel the Jews from the land.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=149}}{{Sfn|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 9, no. 6944}}{{Sfn|Muslim|Al-Khattab|2007|loc=Vol. 5, no. 1765 & 1767}} Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the [[Banu Qaynuqa]],{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}} Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] and [[Ali]] in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by [[Ibn Ishaq]], which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}}{{sfn|Lassner|2012|p=143}} Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies. After roughly two weeks, they capitulated without engaging in combat.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}} At first, Muhammad planned to annihilate the surrendered tribe, but [[Abd Allah ibn Ubayy|Abdullah ibn Ubayy]], a [[Banu Khazraj|Khazraj]] chieftain who had embraced Islam, stepped in. Previously, the Qaynuqa had protected him during multiple conflicts. Ibn Ubayy implored Muhammad to show leniency, but Muhammad turned away without responding. Undeterred, Ibn Ubayy grasped Muhammad's cloak, causing his face to darken with anger and demanding his release. Ibn Ubayy refused unless Muhammad agreed to treat them leniently, threatening him, "I am a man who fears that circumstances may change." Muhammad thus spared their lives, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with Muhammad retaining a fifth.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=173}} *{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|p=197}} *{{harvnb|Brockopp|2010|p=72}} *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|pp=109β10}}}} Having dealt with the Qaynuqa, Muhammad moved on to another personal matter. His staunch critic, [[Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf|Ka'b ibn Ashraf]], a wealthy half-Jewish man from [[Banu Nadir]], had just come back from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=107}}{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=176}} Muhammad asked his followers, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?"{{Sfn|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}}{{Sfn|Bukay|2017|loc=List of Muhammadβs Orders to Murder People}} [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah|Ibn Maslama]] offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food. On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=176}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2007|pp=112β4}} *{{harvnb|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}}}} ====Meccan retaliation==== {{Main|Battle of Uhud}} [[File:The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud, from the Siyer-i Nebi, 1595.jpg|thumb|"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the [[Battle of Uhud]]", from a 1595 edition of the [[Mamluk]]-Turkic ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]'']] In 625, the [[Quraysh]], wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action. Led by [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=110}} Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at [[Mount Uhud|Uhud]] Hill, following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=113}} As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of [[Abd Allah ibn Ubayy|Abdullah ibn Ubayy]] offered their help, which Muhammad declined.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=113β4}} Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=120β3}} Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to [[Banu 'Amir|Banu Amir]]. He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Nadir]],{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=137}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=127}} and they agreed to his request.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}} However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and disappeared. When they found him at his home, according to [[Ibn Ishaq]], Muhammad disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop. Muhammad then initiated a siege on the tribe,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=192}}{{Sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=127β8}} during which he also commanded the felling and burning of their palm groves.{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=219}} After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=193}} They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of goods for every three people.{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=240}} From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=194}} ==== Raid on the Banu Mustaliq ==== Upon receiving a report that the [[Banu Mustaliq]] were planning an attack on [[Medina]], Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=196}} As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=130}} The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about using ''[[coitus interruptus]]'' to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are not under any obligation to forbear from that..."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}} Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}} ==== Assassination of Khaybar leaders and the Banu Uraynah affair ==== Muhammad's northward raids of [[Medina]] had by now caused significant opposition. Many, including Abu Rafi, one of [[Khaybar]]'s key chieftains, were part of this resistance.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=181}} He was then killed in his room by the Muslims at night.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=182β3}} Sometime later, Khaybar people selected Usayr ibn Razim as their ''[[emir]]''.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=184}} Muhammad extended an invitation for him to come to Medina for a settlement. He agreed, but during the journey, the Muslims killed him along with his companions by surprise. Muhammad praised the commandos' leader for his work when he came back to Medina.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021||p=249}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=129}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=184}} Around this particular time, eight men from the Banu Uraynah tribe sought to embrace Islam. They conveyed their discomfort with the city's climate to Muhammad. As a solution, he ordered them to drink the urine and milk of his camels. However, they opted to steal the camels, killing the caretakers in the process. Upon their capture, Muhammad had their eyes gouged out and their limbs cut off. They were then left to die in the desert.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=185}}{{sfn|Williams|1961|p=83}} ====Battle of the Trench==== {{Main|Battle of the Trench}} Realizing that their victory at [[Battle of Uhud|Uhud]] had failed to substantially weaken Muhammad's position as he continued to orchestrate raids on their [[Caravan (travellers)|trade caravans]], the [[Quraysh]] finally saw the imperative of capturing [[Medina]], a move they had previously neglected.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} This decision, according to Muslim sources, was partly influenced by some leaders of the [[Banu Nadir]], who were distressed over the loss of their lands.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=142}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} However, that account may simply have been Muslim propaganda.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=132}} Aware of their limited warfare skills as city merchants, the Quraysh initiated extensive negotiations with various [[Bedouin]] tribes, amassing a force believed to number around 10,000 men.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} Informed early by his allies in Mecca, Muhammad ordered his followers to fortify Medina with trenches, on the advice of [[Salman the Persian]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=143}} The Jews of [[Banu Qurayza]] assisted with this effort by digging the trenches and lending their tools to the Muslims.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=209}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=136}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=145}} The approaching Quraysh and their allies, unfamiliar with trench warfare, were drawn into a protracted siege. Muhammad exploited this situation, using covert negotiations with the [[Ghatafan]] tribe to create discord among his enemies. As the weather deteriorated, morale among the Quraysh and their allies waned, leading to their withdrawal.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} The siege saw minimal casualties, with five to six on the Muslims' side and three among the besiegers.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=138}} ==== Massacre of the Banu Qurayza ==== {{Main|Invasion of Banu Qurayza}} On the exact day the [[Quraysh]] forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel [[Gabriel]], who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=249}} Islamic sources recount that during the [[Battle of the Trench|preceding Meccan siege]], [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], the Quraysh leader, incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent [[Nuaym ibn Masud|Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud]]. Abu Sufyan refused their requirement.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=147β8}} Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, but no evidence substantiates such an attack, and the tradition had every reason to dramatize the incident as a justification for the subsequent massacre.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=211}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}} Muhammad besieged the tribe, alleging they had taken sides against him, which they firmly denied.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=211β2}} As the situation turned dire, they proposed to leave their land but asked to be allowed to take movable goods, the load of a camel per person; Muhammad refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but Muhammad rejected this as well. He insisted on their unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=211β212}} The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their [[Banu Aws|Aws]] allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of [[Abu Lubaba ibn Abd al-Mundhir|Abu Lubaba]]. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}} After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}} The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to [[Sa'd ibn Mu'adh|Sa'd ibn Muadh]], a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Nagel|2020|p=119}} He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives. Muhammad declared, "You have judged according to the very sentence of God above the seven heavens."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}} Consequently, 600β900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to [[Najd]] to be sold. The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=252}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=152}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=213}}{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=235}} ==== Incidents with the Banu Fazara ==== After a few months of rest following the annihilation of the [[Banu Qurayza|Qurayza]], Muhammad prepared to conduct numerous operations. The sources no longer frequently report him receiving word of impending attacks against the Muslims in Medina, suggesting that Muhammad, recognizing his newfound strength, felt capable enough to discard any pretenses and directly confront potential rivals.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=168}} Several tribes, finding no other defensive option, eventually joined the Muslims, understanding from Muhammad's clear decree that Muslims could only raid non-Muslims, thus the most efficient way to avoid the raids was to join the raiders.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=172}} During this period, Muhammad organized a caravan, presumably stocked with recent spoils, to conduct trade in [[Levant|Syria]]. [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Harithah]] was tasked with guarding the convoy. However, when they journeyed through the territory of [[Banu Fazara]], whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacked the caravan, and injured him. Upon his return to [[Medina]], Muhammad decided that a punitive expedition was necessary. Zayd led this operation, successfully capturing [[Umm Qirfa]], the esteemed Fazara matriarch. As punishment, Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-Musahhar to execute her. He did so by tying each of her legs to separate camels, which were then driven in opposite directions, leading to her brutal death.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=248}} ==== Treaty of Hudaybiyya ==== {{Main|Treaty of al-Hudaybiya}} [[File:Kaaba_Masjid_Haraam_Makkah.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim [[Qibla]], or direction for prayer ([[salat]]). The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.{{sfn|Peters|2003b|p=88}}]] Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], Muhammad embarked on the journey. He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire and was accompanied by a group of followers.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265β6}} Upon reaching [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah|Hudaybiyya]], they encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions. Muhammad explained they had come to venerate the [[Kaaba]], not to fight.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}} He then sent [[Uthman]], [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]]'s second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh. As the negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty. Uthman returned with news of a negotiation impasse. Muhammad remained persistent. In the end, the Quraysh sent [[Suhayl ibn Amr]], an envoy with full negotiation powers. Following lengthy discussions, a treaty was finally enacted,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=251β2}} with terms: # A ten-year truce was established between both parties. # If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad. # Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce. # Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the [[Umrah]] pilgrimage in the coming year.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=251β2}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}} ==== Invasion of Khaybar ==== {{Main|Battle of Khaybar}} Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade [[Khaybar]], a flourishing oasis about {{convert|75|mi|km}} north of Medina. The city was populated by Jews, including those from the [[Banu Nadir]], who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from [[Medina]]. With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=280}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=253}} To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "[[Takbir|Allahu Akbar]]! Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=197}} After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200}} The loss in the confrontation was 15β17 Muslims and 93 Jews.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=200}} The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims.{{sfn|Phipps|2016|p=65}} Muhammad claimed [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]], a beautiful 17-year-old girl, from among the captives.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} Following the battle, her husband, [[Kenana ibn al-Rabi|Kinana ibn al-Rabi]], was put through torture by Muhammad's decree for declining to reveal his tribe's hidden wealth, and subsequently beheaded.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=200β1}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}}{{sfn|Bukay|2017|loc=List of Muhammad's Orders to Murder People}} Her father and brother had been executed during the [[Invasion of Banu Qurayza|massacre of the Banu Qurayza]].{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=282β3}} Overwhelmed by her beauty, Muhammad had sex with her the very night, contradicting his own mandate that his followers should wait for the captives' next menstrual cycle to begin before having intercourse.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}}{{Sfn|Swarup|2011|p=75}}{{Sfn|Morgan|2009|p=128}} Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims. Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=202}}{{Sfn|Sa'd|1972|p=139β40}} Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in [[Fadak]] immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest. However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283β4}} At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=48}} The perpetrator was [[Zaynab bint Al-Harith|Zaynab bint al-Harith]], a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people... I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} One account suggests Muhammad forgave her, but in other more accepted reports, she was killed thereafter.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}} Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=49}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283}} ==== Fulfilled umrah and the Battle of Mu'tah ==== A year after the treaty of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad took some of his followers to perform the ''[[umrah]]'' in Mecca.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=204}} The Quraysh moved out of the city for the nearby mountain and allowed the Muslims to complete the ritual.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=205}} Taking the opportunity of his stay, Muhammad married [[Maymunah bint al-Harith]], a 27-year-old sister of the wife of his uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|al-Abbas]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=255}} On the fourth day, when his allotted time by the treaty was over, Muhammad offered the Quraysh to join his wedding feast he was planning to hold in the city, but they refused and told him to depart immediately.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=206}} Upon returning to Medina, Muhammad launched four raids on tribes in the vicinity. Two of these ended in defeat, while the remaining two yielded plunder. Muhammad then directed his army to move northwards, towards the frontier of the [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=206}} Although outnumbered, the Muslim army advanced to confront their adversaries, with victory or martyrdom as their aim. The two parties [[Battle of Mu'tah|clashed at Mu'tah]] and it ended in defeat for the Muslims. [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Haritha]], Muhammad's adopted son, died as a commander at the battle.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=208}} Khalid ibn Walid, who had now embraced Islam, gathered the surviving Muslims to retreat.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=209}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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