Middle Ages Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==High Middle Ages== {{main|High Middle Ages}} ===Society=== [[File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A miniature depicting a tonsured man, a fully armored man wearing a shield, and a man who holds a spade|13th-century French [[historiated initial]] with the three [[Social class|classes]] of medieval society: those who prayed (the [[clergy]]) those who fought (the [[knight]]s), and those who worked (the [[peasant]]ry).]] Between around 950 and 1060, severe draughts hit the Middle East, and the [[Eurasian Steppe]] experienced cold anomalies. The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasturelands in [[Iraq (region)|Iraq]], Anatolia, and the Balkans. Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the Middle East.{{sfn|Ellenblum|2012|pp=3–11}} In contrast, a period of tremendous [[Medieval demography|population expansion]] began in Europe, and the estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between around 1000 and 1347. The exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, [[assarting]] (or bringing new lands into production), a [[Medieval Warm Period|more clement climate]], and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|pp=5–10}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=221}} [[Feudalism]] regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, one party granted property, typically land to the other in return for services, mostly of military nature that the recipient, or [[vassal]], had to render to the grantor, or lord.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=247–249}}{{sfn|Singman|1999|pp=4–6}} In other parts of Europe, such as Germany, Poland, and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Hungary]], inalienable [[allod]]s remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed [[homage (feudal)|homage]] to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat but their landholding was free of feudal obligations.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=6}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|p=467}} In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the {{lang|he|[[pronoia]]}} system—landholding with limited rights—assured to the benefit of the military aristocracy.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|p=73}} Most medieval western thinkers divided the society into three [[social class|fundamental classes]]. These were the clergy, the [[nobility]], and the [[commoner]]s. Constituting about 98 per cent of the total population, commoners were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population.{{sfn|Singman|1999|pp=6, 11, 171}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=220}} Many of the peasantry were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into more defensible small communities, usually known as [[Manorialism|manor]]s or villages.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|pp=5–10}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=220–221}} In the system of manorialism, a manor was the basic unit of landholding, and it comprised smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants, and the lord's [[demesne]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=231–232}} As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency ([[serfdom]]) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late {{nowrap|11th century}}. Unlike slaves, serfs had [[legal capacity]], and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords. Restrictions on their activities varied but their freedom of movement was customarily limited, and they usually owed {{lang|fr|[[corvée]]s}}, or labour services.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|pp=10–12}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=221–222}} Peasants left their homelands in return for economic and legal privileges, typically a lower level of taxation, and the right to administer justice at their communities. The crossborder movement of peasantry had radical demographic consequences, such as the [[Ostsiedlung|spread of German settlements]] to the east.{{sfn|Bartlett|1994|pp=111–123}} With the development of heavy cavalry, the previously uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted [[knight]]s were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, but others were assimilated into the peasantry.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=2}} The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as [[primogeniture]]—the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=36–37}} Nobles were stratified in terms of the land and people over whom they held authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land and had no vassals.{{refn|group=note|In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the {{lang|la|[[ministerialis]]}}, who were in effect unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, which increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs as well as become knights while still being technically serfs.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=8}}}}{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=3}} The nobility was never a closed group: kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could loose their privileged status.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=40}} Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom either with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills, or as conquerors.{{refn|group=note|For instance, the [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] aristocrat [[Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale|Robert Bruce]] (d. 1141) received the [[Lord of Annandale|Lordship of Annandale]] in southern Scotland from [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] (r. 1124–53), whereas [[John de Courcy]] (d. 1219), also an Anglo-Norman knight, seized [[Ulaid]] in Ireland by force.{{sfn|Bartlett|1994|pp=32, 79}}}} French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, whereas German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe.{{sfn|Bartlett|1994|pp=24–39}} The clergy was divided into two types. The [[secular clergy]] cared for believers' spiritual needs, mainly serving in the [[parish church]]es, whereas the [[regular clergy]] lived under a religious rule as monks, [[Canon (clergy)|canons]], or [[friar]]s.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=11}} The introduction of [[Clerical celibacy in the Catholic Church|clerical celibacy]]—the ban on priestly marriage—clearly distinguished Catholic clergy from laity.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|p=87}} [[Church court]]s had exclusive jurisdiction over marriage affairs,{{sfn|Singman|1999|pp=11–12}} and church authorities supported popular [[Peace and Truce of God|peace movements]] in the west.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=252}} From the early {{nowrap|13th century}}, laypeople were obliged to [[Sacrament of Penance|confess]] their sins to a priest at least once a year which reinforced priestly control of their life.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|p=209}} Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks such as child-care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they also did field-work at harvest-time.{{sfn|Singman|1999|pp=14–15}} Townswomen could engage in trade but often only by right of their husband, and unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices.{{sfn|Singman|1999|pp=177–178}} Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir but their potential to give birth to children was regarded as their principal virtue.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=41–42}} As women were not [[ordination|ordained]] priests, the only role open to them in the Church was that of [[nun]]s.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=15}} ===Economic revival=== [[File:Seal City of Hamburg 1241 replica.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A round seal depicting the walls of a town with two towers and a gate, and the tower of a church|Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of [[Hamburg]] (1241)]] The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity and relative political stability laid the foundations for the medieval "[[Commercial Revolution]]" in the 11th century.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=58}} People with surplus cash began investing in commodities like salt, pepper, silk, wine and honey at faraway markets.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=74–85}}{{sfn|Rubin|2014|p=99}} Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first [[Florin|in Florence]] and [[Genovino|Genoa]]. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of [[partnership]]s known as {{lang|it|[[commenda]]}} or {{lang|it|compagnia}}.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=70–71}} [[Bill of exchange|Bills of exchange]] also appeared, enabling easy transmission of money. As many types of coins were in circulation, [[money changer]]s facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could also be negotiated with them which gave rise to the development of credit institutions called banks.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=83, 89}} As local commercial centres developed into towns, the economic growth brought about a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats mainly supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=100–103}} Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could get rid of all elements of external control.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=48–49}} Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as [[guild]]s. Typically, these associations set the rules for quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to the local market.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=110–118}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=461–464}} The Italian [[maritime republics]] such as [[Duchy of Amalfi|Amalfi]], [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], and [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]] were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=58}} In the north, German merchants established associations known as known as {{lang|de|[[Hanse|hansas]]}} and took control of the trade routes connecting the British Islands and the [[Low Countries]] with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.{{refn|group=note|These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; in contrast, the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the [[War of Saint Sabas]] in the Levant.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=78–81}}}}{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=61}} Great [[Fair|trading fairs]] were established and flourished [[Champagne fairs|in northern France]], allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=78–83}} Economic growth provided opportunities to Jewish merchants to spread all over Europe with the local rulers' support.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=209–212, 219–222}} As the Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, they often took despised jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|p=107}} They were especially active in moneylending for they could ignore the Christian clerics' condemnation on loan interest.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=217–218}} The Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced [[antisemitism]], which led to [[blood libel]]s and [[pogrom]]s. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired segregationist laws,{{refn|group=note|The Jews were required to wear a [[Yellow badge|distinctive badge]] on their cloths and to live in [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|their own districts]] in the towns.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|p=213}}}} and even the Jews' permanent expulsion [[Edict of Expulsion|from England]].{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=166–167, 213–214}} ===Church reforms=== [[File:Maria Lach 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|alt=A large rectangular stone church with six towers|The [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] Church of [[Maria Laach Abbey]], built mainly between 1130 and 1156]] In the early 11th century, [[Papal selection before 1059|papal elections]] were [[Tusculan Papacy|controlled by]] Roman aristocrats, but Emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]] (r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed [[Gregorian Reform|reform-minded]] clerics on the papal throne. Through popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their supreme jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=298–300}} In contrast, the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|head of the Byzantine Church]] Patriarch [[Michael I Cerularius]] (d. 1059) refused [[papal supremacy]] for which a [[papal legate]] excommunicated him in 1054. Eventually, after a string of mutual excommunications, this event, known as the [[East–West Schism]], led to the separation of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=140–143}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=309}} Lay [[investiture]]—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at an assembly of bishops in Rome in 1059.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=301}} Henry's son and successor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] (r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands but his appointments outraged Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] (pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the [[Investiture Controversy]], involving other powers as well because kings did not relinquish the control of appointments to bishoprics voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise, in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors with the 1122 [[Concordat of Worms]].{{refn|group=note|Most compromises were based on a distinction between a [[prelate]]'s spiritual and temporal responsibilities. This allowed the bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor or king in return for their investment in the [[temporalities|possessions]] of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control [[canonical election|their election]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=93–94}}}}{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=87–94}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=7–8}} The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=137}} Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]] received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] and [[Basilica di San Nicola|Bari]] rose to prominence.{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=199}} Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of the church reform but their [[anticlericalism]] sometimes led to the rejection of [[Dogma in the Catholic Church|Catholic dogmas]] by the most radical groups such as the [[Waldensians]] and [[Cathars]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=162–172}}{{sfn|Morris|2001|pp=199–203}} To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as [[Medieval Inquisition|inquisitors]].{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=133–134}} Monastic reforms continued as the Cluniac monasteries' splendid ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler [[hermit|hermetical]] monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live the "[[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostolic]] life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the [[Carthusian]]s and the [[Cistercians]]. In the 13th century [[mendicant orders]]—the [[Franciscan]]s and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]—who earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=45–48, 116}} Individuals who were thought to receive divine [[revelation]]s might present a challenge to clerical monopolies but most of them respected official doctrines. The [[veneration]] of popular [[Christian mysticism|mystics]], such as [[Francis of Assisi]] (d. 1226), was often [[canonization|sanctioned]] by church authorities.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|p=324}} Many popular mystics were women.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|p=32}} Among them, the nun [[Hildegard of Bingen]] (d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly respected scholar, who proudly stated that "no man can be made without a woman".{{refn|group=note|Often facing [[misogyny]], Hildegard endorsed the traditional view of the women's fragility in her early works but later she emphasised that men and women were dependent on each other. Although a nun, she provided the first description of [[female orgasm]].{{sfn|Ramirez|2022|pp=188–191}}}}{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=287–288}}{{sfn|Ramirez|2022|pp=188–191}} [[Jewish mysticism]] culminated in the compilation of the {{lang|he|[[Zohar]]}} ('The Book of Illumination'), a 13th-century summary of [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] teaching.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|p=105}} ===Rise of state power=== [[File:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Map depicting the borders of empires, kingdoms and other states in Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa|Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190]] The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe until the late {{nowrap|18th century}}, or even further.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=395–396}} The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, inducing the idea of [[state sovereignty]].{{refn|group=note|The formation of the idea is mainly attributed to the [[Early modern period|early modern]] philosophers [[Jean Bodin]] (d. 1596) and [[Thomas Hobbes]] (d. 1679) but the concept developed during the conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. Already in 1202, a papal [[decretal]] stated that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", expressing that kings were not subject to the emperor's authority, and implying the equal status of secular monarchs.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=68–70}}}}{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=272–273}} The concept of [[hereditary monarchy]] was strengthening,{{sfn|Watts|2014|p=64}} and the first [[Queen regnant|queens regnant]] assumed power, as female succession was recognised in most countries.{{refn|group=note|[[Urraca of León|Urraca]] (r. 1109–26) reigned in León and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Petronilla of Aragon|Petronilla]] (r. 1137–62) in [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragón]], and [[Constance, Queen of Sicily|Constance]] (r. 1194–98) in [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]].{{sfn|Fößel|2016|p=75}}}}{{sfn|Fößel|2016|pp=75–79}} The [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]] emerged as the central office of royal government but also acted as a [[Appellate court|court of appeals]].{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=86–90}} Taxation quickly developed because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures. Initially, extraordinary taxes were levied for military purposes but by the end of the period taxes had been collected on a more regular basis.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=92–98}} Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of [[Representative assembly|representative assemblies]], allowing them to exert influence on state administration.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=395–399}}{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=155–160}} The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|p=7}} The [[Temporal power (papal)|Papal Monarchy]] reached its apogee under the pontificate of {{nowrap|[[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]]}} (pope 1198–1216).{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=371–379}} As rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers, the popes became deeply involved in secular politics.{{sfn|Fried|2015|p=271}} Sicily and southern Italy had been [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|seized]] by [[Italo-Normans|Norman]] warbands from the local Lombard, [[Catepanate of Italy|Byzantine]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Muslim rulers]] between 1016 and 1091, and [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]] (r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=206–210}} In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the Ottonians were replaced by the [[Salian dynasty|Salians]] in 1024. They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized [[Kingdom of Arles|Burgundy]] before clashing with the papacy under {{nowrap|Henry IV}}.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=259–260}} After a short interval between 1125 and 1137, the [[Hohenstaufen]]s succeeded the Salians. Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the [[Imperial Estate|German princes]] to extort considerable concessions from them. In 1183, [[Frederick I Barbarossa|{{nowrap|Frederick I}} Barbarossa]] (r. 1155–90) [[Peace of Constance|sanctioned]] the right of the [[Lombard League|Lombard cities]] to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was [[Statutum in favorem principum|recognised]] during the reign of his grandson {{nowrap|[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]}} (r. 1220–50).{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=182–203}} {{nowrap|Frederick II's}} efforts to dominate Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty.{{refn|group=note|{{nowrap|Frederick II}} was famed for his erudition and unconventional life style: he had a harem, was dressed in Arab-style garments, and wore a mantle decorated with [[Āyah|verses from the Quran]] during his imperial coronation in Rome.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=411}}}} In Germany, a period of interregnum, or rather civil war began, whereas Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by an ambitious French prince [[Charles I of Anjou]] (r. 1266–85).{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=409–413}} During the German civil war, the right of seven [[prince-elector]]s to elect the king was reaffirmed. [[Rudolf of Habsburg]] (r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he was unable to control the whole empire. He granted [[Duchy of Austria|Austria]] to his sons, thus establishing the basis for the [[Habsburgs]]' future dominance in Central Europe.{{sfn|Watts|2014|pp=160–170}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=413}} After his death, three Alpine peasant communities formed the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederacy]] to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.{{sfn|Fried|2015|p=319}}{{sfn|Watts|2014|p=104}} [[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene44 William Odo Robert.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|alt=An embroiled cloth depicting three men sitting on a bench|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] (detail) showing [[William the Conqueror]] (centre), his half-brothers [[Robert, Count of Mortain]] (right) and [[Odo, Earl of Kent|Odo]], Bishop of [[Bayeux]] in the [[Duchy of Normandy]] (left)]] The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=261–264}} The kings faced a powerful rival in the [[Duke of Normandy|Dukes of Normandy]], who in 1066 under [[William the Conqueror]] (r. 1035–87) conquered England. This cross-Channel empire further expanded when {{nowrap|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]}} (r. 1154–89) from the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin dynasty]] ascended the throne, as he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage.{{refn|group=note|Henry inherited [[County of Anjou|Anjou]] from [[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou|his father]], and seized [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]] by marrying the heiress [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]] (r. 1137–1204) just months after her marriage to [[Louis VII of France]] (r. 1137–80) had been [[Declaration of nullity|annulled]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=257}}}}{{sfn|Jordan|2002|pp=60, 149-152}} The first [[Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland|Anglo-Norman lordships]] in Ireland were established during his reign.{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=85}} Under his son [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] (r. 1189–99), the [[Angevin Empire]] remained intact, but Richard's brother [[John, King of England|John]] (r. 1199–1216) [[French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)|lost]] the northern French possessions to the French king [[Philip II of France|Philip II Augustus]] (r. 1180–1223).{{sfn|Jordan|2002|pp=156-160}} John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to [[Magna Carta]], a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=400–401}} In France, Philip Augustus's son {{nowrap|[[Louis VIII of France|Louis VIII]]}} (r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as [[appanage]]s—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=404–406}} His son [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] (r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors known as {{lang|fr|enquêteurs}} to oversee the royal officials' conduct. The [[Parlement of Paris|royal court at Paris]] began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost all over the year.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=266–268}} The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the {{lang|es|[[Reconquista]]}}.{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=145}} After numerous divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] by 1230.{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=185–188, 299}}{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=279–281}} Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|Sicily]] from the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Italian Angevins]], and [[Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|Sardinia]] from the Genoese.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=322–325}}{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=304–307}} Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as ''[[taifa]]s''. Although the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], two dynasties from the [[Maghreb]], established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated, allowing further expansion of the Christian kingdoms.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=307–315}} The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded: the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and [[Norse Greenland|Greenland]], Denmark seized [[Danish Estonia|parts of Estonia]], and the Swedes conquered [[Finland under Swedish rule|Finland]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=344–352}} In the east, Kievan Rus' [[Council of Liubech|fell apart]] into independent principalities. Among them, the northern [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops [[Sack of Kiev (1169)|sacked Kyiv]] in 1169.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=300–305}} Poland also [[Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth|disintegrated]] into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous [[Duchy of Silesia]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=300, 333}} The kings of Hungary seized [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]] but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as [[Dalmatia]], [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnia]], and the nomadic [[Cumans]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=336–337, 367–388}} The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and [[Vlachs]] during their [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|anti-Byzantine revolt]] that led to the restoration of [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] in the late {{nowrap|12th century}}.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=674–694}} To the west of Bulgaria, [[Serbia in the Middle Ages|Serbia]] gained independence.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=660–666}} With the rise of the [[Mongol Empire]] in the Eurasian Steppe under [[Genghis Khan]] (r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=458–460}} [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Between 1236 and 1242]], the Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria. Their commander-in-chief [[Batu Khan]] (r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital at [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] on the Volga, establishing the [[Golden Horde]], a virtually autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions.{{refn|group=note|Prince [[Alexander Nevsky]] (d. 1263) made four visits at Sarai to gain the Khans' favor. He overcame his rivals with Mongol assistance, crushed an anti-Mongol riot in [[Novgorod]], and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=711–712}}}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=703–715}} Under Mongol pressure, the [[Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate]] disintegrated into small but often aggressive [[Anatolian beyliks|Turkic lordships]], such as the one ruled by the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman clan]] on the Byzantine border.{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=181}} The Mongol conquest was followed by a [[Pax Mongolica|peaceful period]] in Eastern Europe which facilitated the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through newly established [[Genoese Gazaria|Genoese colonies]] in the Black Sea region.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=716–717}} The new land and sea routes to the Far East were famously described in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' written by one of the traders, [[Marco Polo]] (d. 1324).{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=58}} ===Crusades=== {{main|Crusades|Crusading movement}} {{see also|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|List of crusades|Rhineland massacres}} [[File:Crac des chevaliers syria.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A large stone castle on a hill|[[Krak des Chevaliers]] in Syria, built during the [[crusades]] for the [[Knights Hospitaller]]s.]] Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks, Pope [[Pope Urban II|Urban II]] (pope 1088–99) proclaimed the [[First Crusade]] at the [[Council of Clermont]]. He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered [[indulgence]]—the remission of sins—to all who took part.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=112–115}} Tens of thousands of commoners [[People's Crusade|formed loosely organised bands]] to march to the east. They lived off looting, and attacked the Jewish communities. Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were [[Battle of Civetot|annihilated]] by the Turks.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=139–140}} The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats like [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] (d. 1100), and [[Raymond of Saint-Gilles]] (d. 1105). The crusaders defeated the Turks in two major battles [[Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)|at Dorylaeum]] and [[Battle of Antioch (1098)|Antioch]], allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia. The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into [[crusader states]], but their security depended on external military assistance which led to further [[crusades]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=115–118}} Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords, like [[Saladin]] (d. 1193) who [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|captured Jerusalem]] in 1187.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=313–314}} New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the crusaders' last strongholds fell to the [[Mamluks of Egypt]] in 1291.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=118–126}} The papacy used the crusading ideology in other [[Theater (warfare)|theaters of war]] as well.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=118}} The Iberian crusades became fused with the {{lang|es|Reconquista}} and reduced Al-Andalus to the [[Emirate of Granada]] by 1248. The German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring [[paganism|pagan]] tribes developed into the [[Northern Crusades]] bringing the forced assimilation of numerous Slavic, [[Balts|Baltic]] and [[Baltic Finnic peoples|Finnic]] peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=107, 209–224}} The [[Fourth Crusade]] was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and [[Sack of Constantinople|captured the city]] in 1204, setting up a [[Latin Empire|Latin Empire]] in the east. [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] (r. 1259–82), the ruler of a Byzantine [[rump state]]{{refn|group=note|After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged: [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] in northern Greece and Albania, [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]] in western Anatolia, and [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=423–424}}}} recaptured the city in 1261, but [[Frankokratia|parts of Greece]] remained under the westerners' rule.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=423–424}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=112}} The [[Albigensian Crusades]] against the Cathars of [[Occitania]] provided the opportunity for the French monarchy [[Treaty of Paris (1229)|to expand into the region]].{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=173–174}} With its specific ceremonies and institutions, the [[crusading movement]] became a featuring element of medieval life.{{refn|group=note|Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their cloths. The crusaders enjoyed privileges, including a moratorium on debts, but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced [[Infamy#In canon law|infamy]] or excommunication.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=313–317}}}} [[Quia maior|From 1213]], a crusader oath could be fulfilled through a cash payment which gave rise to the sale of plenary indulgences by church authorities.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=333–342}} The crusades brought about the fusion of monastic life with military service within the framework of a new type of monastic order, the [[Military order (society)|military orders]]. The establishment of the [[Knights Templar]] set the precedent, inspiring the militarisation of charitable associations, like the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]], and the founding of new orders of warrior monks, like the [[Order of Calatrava]].{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=46–47}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=353–355}} The Teutonic Knights focused much of their activity in the Baltic where they founded [[State of the Teutonic Order|their own state]] in 1226.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=332}} ===Intellectual life=== {{main|Renaissance of the 12th century}} [[File:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|alt=A monk measuring in a room filled with books and devices|Abbot [[Richard of Wallingford]] making his [[astronomical clock]], 14th-century miniature]] [[Cathedral chapter]]s were expected to operate a school from the late {{nowrap|11th century}}, and the more lenient [[cathedral schools]] quickly marginalised the traditional [[monastic school]]s. Schools reaching the highest level of mastery within the disciplines they taught received the rank of {{lang|la|[[studium generale]]}}, or [[medieval university|university]] from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=345–348}}{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=409–410}} The new institutions of education encouraged scholarly discussions.{{sfn|Colish|2002|p=265}} Debates between the [[Philosophical realism|realists]] and the [[Nominalism|nominalists]] over the concept of "[[Universal (metaphysics)|universals]]" were especially heated. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of [[Aristotle]] (d. {{nowrap|322 BC}}), the [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Ancient Greek philosopher]], and his emphasis on [[empiricism]] and [[rationalism]]. Scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] (d. 1142) and [[Peter Lombard]] (d. 1164) introduced [[Term logic|Aristotelian logic]] into theology.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=324–333}} [[Scholasticism]], the new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy, required the study of authoritative texts, notably the [[Vulgate]] and [[Church Fathers|patristic]] literature, but references to them could no more override rational argumentation.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=433–434}} Scholastic academics summarised their and other authors' views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as {{lang|la|[[summa|summae]]}}, including the {{lang|la|[[Summa Theologica]]}} by [[Thomas Aquinas]] (d. 1274).{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=266, 295–301}} [[Chivalry]] and the ethos of [[courtly love]] developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the [[Vernacular|vernacular languages]] rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs. Often the stories were written down in {{lang|fr|[[Chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]}} ('songs of great deeds'), glorifying their male heroes' often brutal acts such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]'', and ''[[Cantar de mio Cid|The Poem of the Cid]]''. In contrast, [[chivalric romance]] praised chaste love, while eroticism was mainly present in poems composed by [[troubadour]]s.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=352–359}}{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=413–414}} Chivalric literature took inspiration from [[classical mythology]], and also from the Celtic legends of the [[Arthurian cycle]] collected by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. {{Circa|1155}}).{{sfn|Colish|2002|p=182}} Further featuring literary genres include spiritual [[autobiography|autobiographies]], chronicles, philosophical poems, and [[hymn]]s.{{refn|group=note|Examples include the spiritual works of [[Guibert of Nogent]] (d. {{Circa|1125}}), the lyric correspondence between Abelard and his former lover [[Héloïse]] (d. {{Circa|1164}}), ''The Two Cities'' by [[Otto of Freising]] (d. 1158), the poems of [[Alan of Lille]] (d. 1202/03), and {{lang|la|[[Stabat Mater]]}}, a hymn to Virgin Mary.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=178–182}}}}{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=178–182}} Theatre developed in the guise of [[mystery plays]], but comic [[farce]]s, like those written by [[Adam de la Halle]] (d. 1287/88) also gained popularity.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=209–211}} The discovery of a copy of the {{lang|la|Corpus Juris Civilis}} in the 11th century paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe.{{refn|group=note|Among the earliest law codes, the [[Constitutions of Melfi]] was compiled in Sicily, the {{lang|es|[[Siete Partidas]]}} ('Seven Parts') in Castile, and the {{lang|no|[[Magnus Lagabøtes landslov|Landslov]]}} ('Code of the Realm') in Norway.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=131}} In contrast, the [[common law]] system in England developed through the adoption of principles and procedures such as [[trial by jury]] by royal courts.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|p=153}}}} Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of ecclesiastical law, or [[canon law]]—the {{lang|la|[[Decretum Gratiani]]}}.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=333–337}} Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[Positional notation|positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=343–344}} ===Architecture and arts=== [[File:Catedral Gótica de León.jpg|thumb|alt=A large stone church with two large and several smaller towers and a huge rose window on the façade|[[León Cathedral]], an example of [[Rayonnant|Rayonnant Gothic]], completed in three phases during the 13th–15th centuries]] [[Encastellation]] continued with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|p=13}} Many of them were [[motte-and-bailey castle|motte-and-bailey]] structures, but {{lang|de|[[Bergfriede]]}}, or tower castles, were preferred in Central Europe, and the competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns.{{refn|group=note|Reportedly, the tall {{lang|it|torri}} ('towers') made some Italian towns look like brick and stone forests. The small Tuscan town of [[San Gimignano]] is still a good example although only few of the family towers have survived.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=142}}}}{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=138–147}} The great pilgrimages entailed the construction of large churches along pilgrimage roads.{{refn|group=note|The [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|Basilica of Saint-Sernin]] in the city of [[Toulouse]] is one of the earliest [[pilgrimage church]]es on the {{lang|es|[[Camino de Santiago]]}} ('Way of Saint James').{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=61–62}}}} This led to the development of stone architecture that bears some resemblance to classical Roman building design, hence known as [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]]. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, decorated with sculpture in [[relief]], and are typically covered by [[Barrel vault|barrel]], [[Groin vault|groin]] or [[rib vault]]s,{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=186–191}} but Romanesque has various regional variants.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=82, 93, 109}} Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches display Romanesque influence.{{refn|group=note|The Church of the Virgin in the [[Studenica Monastery]] well illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal with its [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] was completed by southern Italian builders in the late {{nowrap|12th century}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=639–640}}}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=638–644}} Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]].{{sfn|Lasko|1972|pp=240–250}} Few wall-paintings survive although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] made of [[mural]]s facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over large territory.{{refn|group=note|Artistic motifs could be disseminated over huge areas through the copying and recopying of sketches, as it is demonstrated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin in the [[St Mark's Basilica]] in Venice and in the [[Mirozhsky Monastery|Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration]] in the Rus' city of [[Pskov]].{{sfn|Dodwell|1993|p=7}}}} [[Embroidery]] flourished as the churches and castles were decorated by [[tapestry|tapestries]], and clerical vestments were adorned by [[needlework]] images.{{sfn|Dodwell|1993|pp=7–44}} Structural innovations introduced the development of the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style from Romanesque. These included [[Ogive|pointed arches]] for the reduction of lateral thrust, [[flying buttress]]es to reinforce the walls, and rib vaults to minimise their [[Statics|static]] importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large [[stained glass]] windows.{{sfn|Benton|2002|p=150}} The Gothic architecture emerged as a combination of all these during the reconstruction of the [[Basilica of Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis Abbey]] near Paris under Abbot [[Suger]] (d. 1151).{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=198–199}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|p=152}} The new style quickly spread and dominated religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe till the end of the Middle Ages.{{refn|group=note|Prominent examples include the cathedrals [[Chartres Cathedral|at Chartres]] and [[Reims Cathedral|Reims]], and the [[Sainte-Chapelle]] in France, [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England, [[Cologne Cathedral]] in Germany, [[Milan Cathedral]] in Italy, and the [[Saint Vitus Cathedral]] in Prague.{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=205–219}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=201–240}}}}{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=199–219}} The practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=250–258}} Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=245–247}} In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=264–278}} Increasing prosperity during the {{nowrap|12th century}} resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[ivory carving|carved ivory]] objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=248–250}} {{clear|left}} ===Technology and military=== {{further|List of medieval European scientists|military of the Mongol Empire}} [[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|alt=A middle aged man wearing a hat is writing a book using a pair of glasses|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] (d. 1263) by [[Tommaso da Modena]] (1352), the first known (although anachronistic) depiction of [[spectacles]]]] Technology developed mainly through minor innovations and by the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia through Muslim mediation.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=191–192}} Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex [[spectacles]], and the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=344}}{{sfn|Ilardi|2007|pp=4–5}} In Europe, horizontal [[treadle loom]]s were introduced in the {{nowrap|11th century}}, [[windmill]]s were first built after 1100, and [[spinning wheel]]s appeared around 1200.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=344}}{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=193–194}} Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=64}} Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=69–70}} The use of [[astrolabe]] and [[compass]] allowed navigation in large distance from the shores.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=241}} The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops increased the usage of land by more than {{nowrap|30 per cent}}, with a consequent increase in production.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|p=45}} The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of [[horse collar]] led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] that required less pastures than oxen.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=225}} Legumes—such as peas, beans, or lentils—were grown more widely, in addition to the cereal crops.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=76}} In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=125}} Crossbows increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare.{{refn|group=note|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, the slowness is not as big a disadvantage, as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=124}}}}{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=80}} This led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[Barding|horse armour]].{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=134–138}} In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly armoured steppe horsemen even after they had adopted Chinese military devices.{{refn|group=note|The Mongols were reportedly the first to use [[gunpowder]] in Europe in the {{nowrap|mid-13th century}}.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=294–296}}}} The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy lands was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=210–219}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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