Islam Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of Islam}} {{For timeline|Timeline of Islamic history}} {{See also|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}} {{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, today's [[Saudi Arabia]], the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}} === Muhammad and the birth of Islam (570–632) === {{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}} {{See also|Early social changes under Islam}} [[File:Hira_Cave.jpg|thumb|[[Jabal al-Nour|Cave of Hira]]]] According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in [[Mecca]] in [[570]] [[Common Era|CE]] and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "[[Amin (name)|trusted one]]" ({{lang-ar|الامين}}) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]].{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the [[Cave of Hira]] in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]], near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have [[Muhammad's first revelation|received the first revelation]] of the [[Quran]] from the angel [[Gabriel]].<ref>{{harvc |c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "[[Night of Power]]" (''Laylat al-Qadr'') and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or [[seal of the prophets]] sent to mankind.<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5"/><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9"/><ref> {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> [[File:Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg|thumb|"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottomans : religious painting |url=http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/ottoman33.html |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, {{Circa|1595}}.]] During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca|while in Mecca, Muhammad]] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon [[polytheism]] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first [[muezzin]] [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]].<ref>Rabah, Bilal B. ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]].''</ref> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323 |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024048/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}.</ref> After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]], Muhammad and his [[Sahaba|companions]] performed the ''[[Hegira|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (the ''[[Muhajirun]]''), [[Muhammad in Medina]] established his [[Theocracy|political and religious authority]]. The [[Constitution of Medina]] was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the [[Battle of Uhud]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Peter Crawford |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |page=83 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=9781473828650 |date=2013-07-16 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |url-status=live }}.</ref> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April 627). In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<ref>{{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref name="610CE" /> === Early Islamic period (632–750) === {{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Early Muslim conquests}} {{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}} [[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif|thumb|right|Expansion of [[Rashidun Caliphate]]]] [[File:Dome of the Rock1.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] built by caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]]]] Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called [[Caliph]]s – [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and sometimes [[Hasan ibn Ali]]<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Melchert| first1 = Christopher| date = 2020| contribution = The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought| location = London and New York| publisher = [[I.B. Tauris]]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4| pages = 70–71| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63| access-date = 17 February 2022| archive-date = 28 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status = live}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=40}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the [[Ridda wars]].<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] empires.<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012">{{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Kuiper |first=Matthew |title=Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781351510721 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=60–61 |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus}}</ref> Uthman [[election of Uthman|was elected in 644]] and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the [[First Fitna|First Civil War]], Muhammad's widow, [[Aisha]], raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the [[Battle of the Camel]]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, [[Mu'awiya]], who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the [[Battle of Siffin]]. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the [[Kharijites]], an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the [[Battle of Nahrawan]] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]] to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiya began the [[Umayyad dynasty]] with the appointment of his son [[Yazid I]] as successor, sparking the [[Second Fitna|Second Civil War]]. During the [[Battle of Karbala]], [[Husayn ibn Ali]] was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been [[Ashura|annually commemorated]] by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by [[Ibn al-Zubayr]] and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the [[Siege of Mecca (692)|siege of Mecca]]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the [[Sunni]]-[[Shia]] schism,<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=11 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511081444/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the [[ahl al-bayt]].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}} Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> and [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'', as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |publisher=King Abdulaziz Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023959/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |pages=207– |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Moshe Sharon]] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024050/https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Kharijites]] believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as [[Islamic State|Isis]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mamouri|first=Ali|date=8 January 2015|title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306213145/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Murji'ah]] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the [[Berber Revolt]], leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the [[Abbasid Revolution]], non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}} === Classical era (750–1258) === {{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}} {{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}} Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]] compiled the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] while scholars like [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], Malik ibn Anas and [[al-Shafi'i]]. In contrast, the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] formed the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]. In the 9th century, [[Al-Tabari]] completed the first commentary of the Quran, the ''[[Tafsir al-Tabari]]'', which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into ''tasawwuf'' or [[Sufism]].<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}} At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the [[Iblis|devil]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as [[Muʿtazila]], who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by [[Wasil ibn Ata]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliph [[Mamun al Rashid]] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} Caliph [[Al-Mu'tasim]] carried out [[Mihna|inquisition]]s, with the traditionalist [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was [[Quranic createdness|created rather than being eternal]], which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other [[Schools of Islamic theology|schools]] of [[Kalam|speculative theology]] – [[Maturidi|Māturīdism]] founded by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] and [[Ash'ari]] founded by [[Al-Ash'ari]] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as [[Al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later [[scholasticism]] within [[Christianity in Europe]] and [[Maimonides]]' work within Judaism, while others like [[Al-Ghazali]] argued against such [[syncretism]] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref> [[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]] This era is sometimes called the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012"/> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|medicine]], [[Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world|mathematics]], [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|astronomy]], and [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]] as well as [[Physics in the medieval Islamic world|physics]], [[History of Islamic economics|economics]], [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|engineering]] and [[Ibn al-Haytham|optics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523192533/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world|website=[[TheGuardian.com]]|date=February 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=13 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213154451/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Avicenna]] was a pioneer in [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> and his ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and [[Europe]] for centuries. [[Rhazes]] was the first to identify the diseases [[smallpox]] and [[measles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|title=Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)|publisher=sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506072259/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Public hospital]]s of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref name="Alatas">{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923024727/https://zenodo.org/record/29439/files/6.1From_Jamiah_to_University.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in [[optics]].<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717022851/http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In engineering, the [[Banū Mūsā]] brothers' [[Automaton|automatic]] [[flute]] player is considered to have been the first [[Program (machine)|programmable machine]].<ref name="Koetsier2">{{cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |date=May 2001 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the concept of the [[algorithm]] is named after [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]], who is considered a founder of [[algebra]], which is named after his book [[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|''al-jabr'']], while others developed the concept of a [[function (mathematics)|function]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Victor J. |last2=Barton |first2=Bill |title=Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching |journal=Educational Studies in Mathematics |date=18 September 2007 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=185–201 |doi=10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 |s2cid=120363574 }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name="Ahmed">{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}</ref> [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242] |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as [[Christians]], [[Jews]] and [[Sabians]],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> [[Christian influences on the Islamic world|contributed to the Islamic civilization]] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the [[House of Wisdom]] employed [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Christian]] and [[List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars|Persian scholars]] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304 "Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 December 2023 }}. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi |last=Brague|year= 2009| isbn=9780226070803| page =164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref><ref>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref> Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]]s in 868 in Egypt<ref>{{cite book|last=Holt|first=Peter Malcolm|author-link=Peter Holt (historian)|title=The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-582-36931-3|page=6|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]] in 977 in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |page=83}}</ref> In this fragmentation came the [[Shi'a Century]], roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the [[millennialist]] [[Isma'ili]] Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the [[Fatimid dynasty]], took control of North Africa in the 10th century<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> and another Isma'ili group, the [[Qarmatians]], sacked Mecca and stole the [[Black Stone]], a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506004706/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yet another Isma'ili group, the [[Buyid dynasty]], conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to [[Sunni Revival|reassert Sunni Islam]] by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as [[Nezamiyeh]], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and [[Saadi Shirazi]].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref> The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] reached deep into the [[Indian Subcontinent]] and many converted to Islam,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=227–228}} in particular [[Dalit|low-caste Hindu]]s whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|publisher=BBCnews|date=10 May 2016|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|url-status=live}}</ref> Trade brought many [[Islam in China|Muslims to China]], where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="china">{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122142756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims were recruited as a [[Semu|governing minority class]] in the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipman|first=Jonathan Newman|title=Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|page=33}}</ref> === Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century) === {{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}} [[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ghazan Khan]], 7{{sup|th}} [[Ilkhanate]] ruler of the [[Mongol Empire]], converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction]] Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=125–258}} Islam spread into new areas<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220022/http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of [[syncretism]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism beliefs]] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} [[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Muslims in Ming Dynasty China]] who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Edward L.|title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule|date=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004103910|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024330/https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol destruction]] of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in [[Ilkhanate|Iran]] and [[Chagatai Khanate|Central Asia]] benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under [[Pax Mongolica|Mongol rule]] and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the [[Timurid Renaissance]] under the [[Timurid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |s2cid=162411014 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813204329/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201–1274) proposed the [[Tusi couple|mathematical model]] that was later argued to be adopted by [[Copernicus]] unrevised in his [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model,<ref>{{cite web|date=1999|title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|publisher=University of St Andrews|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006055638/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]]'s estimate of [[pi]] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around [[gunpowder empires]], these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was claimed by the [[Ottoman dynasty]] of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as [[Selim I]] became the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques|ruler of Mecca and Medina]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226173808/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, [[Babur]] founded the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{citation|last=Gilbert|first=Marc Jason|title=South Asia in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-066137-3|pages=75|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref> The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A [[symbiosis]] between [[list of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The [[Mevlevi Order]] and [[Bektashi Order]] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as [[heterodox]] and [[syncretic]] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |page=15 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The often forceful [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavid conversion of Iran]] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the [[Twelver|Twelver sect]] within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|title=CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India|publisher=Iranica Online|language=English|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Modern era (18th–20th centuries) === [[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdülmecid II]] was the last Caliph of Islam from the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]] Earlier in the 14th century, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] promoted a [[puritan]]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of [[itjihad]] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 18th century in Arabia, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], founded a movement called [[Wahhabi]] to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later [[bidah|innovations]] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite thesis |title=The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth |url=https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |publisher=University of Wales Trinity Saint David |date=2022-08-23 |degree=masters |language=en |first=Shahajada Md |last=Musa |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|tombs of Muhammad and his companions]] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}} He formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name=":12" /><ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> [[Ma Wanfu]] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as [[Sailaifengye]] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79|page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the [[Senusiyya]] and [[Muhammad Ahmad]] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the [[Deobandi]] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the [[Barelwi]] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular [[Sufism]] and reforming its practices.<ref name="Canfield2002">{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131– |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Muslim world]] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the [[Reconquista]] succeeded in ending the [[Taifa|Muslim presence in Iberia]]. By the 19th century, the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to [[Islamic revival|reform Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> [[Islamic modernism]], initially labelled by Western scholars as [[Salafi movement|''Salafiyya'']], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |title=Islam in Modern History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1957 |isbn=0-691-03030-8 |page=233 |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref> Similar to contemporary [[Civil code|codification]], sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's [[Mecelle]] code.<ref name=Oxfordref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Mecelle |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire disintegrated]] after [[World War I]], the [[Ottoman Caliphate]] [[Abolition of the Caliphate|was abolished in 1924]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> and the subsequent [[Sharifian Caliphate]] fell quickly,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title=«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |issn=2405-8440 |doi-access=free|pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=والخلفاء |first=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |title=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء |date=2023-03-31 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6 |language=en |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> thus leaving Islam without a [[Caliphate|Caliph]].<ref name=":2" /> [[Pan-Islam]]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as [[pan-Arabism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doran |first=Michael |title=Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-512361-6 |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Yaʿaqov M. |title=The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-827709-5 |edition=[Rev. and updated] paperback (with additions and corr.) |location=Oxford}}</ref> The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Qibli Mosque|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the [[Islam in Latin America|Muslim population in Latin America]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zabel|first=Darcy|title=Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2006|isbn=9780820481111|location=Austria|page=5}}</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<ref name=":3">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref> === Contemporary era (20th century–present) === [[File:13. Session of the Islamic Summit Conference.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the [[Islamic Summit Conference]] in Istanbul, Turkey]] Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In [[Iran]], [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were [[political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref> In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out [[1997 Turkish military memorandum|coups]] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref name="economist">{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized [[Al-Azhar University]], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840 }}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=[[Foreign Policy Magazine]] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the [[Khmer Rouge]], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in [[Xinjiang internment camps|Xinjiang]]<ref name="Beydoun2018">{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the [[Bosnian genocide]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's [[Tatmadaw]] targeting of [[Rohingya people|Rohingya Muslims]] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]] Fact-Finding Mission identified [[Rohingya genocide|genocide]], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref name="fact-finding">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the [[hijab]] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "[[televangelist]]" preachers, such as [[Amr Khaled]], who compete with the traditional [[ulema]] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve [[Liberal Muslims]] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref name="adams-114-sec">{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen/page/113 113–4]|chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote=[Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12|website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial [[Ruling class|ruling elites]],<ref name=saeed>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook|url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to [[Antireligion|anti-religion]].<ref name=OEIW>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page