Egypt Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! === Arab Republic of Egypt (1971–present) === ==== President Sadat (1970–1981) ==== [[File:Egyptian Armor.jpg|thumb|Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during the [[Yom Kippur War]], 1973]] In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by [[Anwar Sadat]]. Sadat switched Egypt's [[Cold War]] allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the [[Infitah]] economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the [[Fourth Arab-Israeli War]] (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. [[File:Begin, Carter and Sadat at Camp David 1978.jpg|thumb|Celebrating the signing of the 1978 [[Camp David Accords]]: [[Menachem Begin]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Anwar Sadat]]]] In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his programme of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.<ref>Amin, Galal. ''Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990'', 1995</ref> Because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, it led to the [[1977 Egyptian Bread Riots]]. Sadat made a [[Anwar Sadat's visit to Israel, 1977|historic visit to Israel in 1977]], which led to the 1979 [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|Egypt-Israel peace treaty]] in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognised Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the [[Arab world]] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the [[Arab League]], but it was supported by most Egyptians.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=443|edition=4.}}</ref> [[Assassination of Anwar Sadat|Sadat was assassinated]] by an Islamic extremist in October 1981. ==== President Mubarak (1981–2011) ==== [[File:Hosni Mubarak 2003.jpg|left|thumb|[[Hosni Mubarak]] was the president of Egypt from 1981 until his overthrew in 2011]] [[Hosni Mubarak]] came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt |location=Egypt |work=The New York Times |date=11 September 2010 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027041857/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive. On [[1986 Egyptian conscripts riot|25 February 1986]], the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.<ref>Middle East International No 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers [[Christopher Mayhew|Lord Mayhew]], [[Dennis Walters]]. Simon Ingram p. 8, [[Per Gahrton]] p.20</ref> [[File:Cairo north.JPG|thumb|[[Cairo]] grew into a [[metropolitan area]] with a population of over 20 million.]] In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian [[Copt]]s, foreign tourists and government officials.<ref>Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p. 4</ref> In the 1990s an [[Islamist]] group, [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]], engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm ... concerns over tourism's future] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |date=24 September 2013}}. Retrieved 27 September 2007.</ref>—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kepel |first1=Gilles |author-link=Gilles Kepel |title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01090-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tttzgNKFAI8C |language=en |page={{page needed|date=February 2023}}}}</ref> During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]], which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Evaluating Egyptian REfoRm |url=http://research.policyarchive.org/6458.pdf |journal=Carnegie P a P e R S}}</ref> As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.<ref>Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4.</ref> On 17 November 1997, [[Luxor massacre|62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred]] near [[Luxor]]. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|1952 movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310152506/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2005 |title=Mubarak throws presidential race wide open |publisher=Business Today Egypt |date=10 March 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |title=Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections |publisher=Weeklystandard.com |date=27 March 2006 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107135218/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |archive-date=7 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Voter turnout was less than 25%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915045155/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F09%2F13%2Fworldviews.DTL |archive-date=15 September 2005 |title=Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election |last=Gomez |first=Edward M |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=12 September 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |title=Egyptian vote marred by violence |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=26 May 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208095738/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |archive-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the election, Mubarak imprisoned [[Ayman Nour]], the runner-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |title=United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=24 December 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051128/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |archive-date=21 October 2011 }}</ref> Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine [[torture]], arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |title=Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt |chapter=Egypt: Events of 2005 |date=5 January 2006 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |archive-date=14 November 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, [[Amnesty International]] released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |title=Egypt torture centre, report says |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126031108/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |archive-date=26 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |title=Egypt rejects torture criticism |work=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331143516/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |archive-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |title=Anger over Egypt vote timetable |work=BBC News |date=20 March 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129222423/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |archive-date=29 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party ([[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]]), described Egypt as a "[[pharaonic]]" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} ==== Revolution (2011) ==== {{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution}} {{multiple image | width = 200 | direction = vertical | footer = '''Top''': celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation.<br/>'''Bottom''': protests in Tahrir Square against President [[Mohamed Morsi|Morsi]] on 27 November 2012. | image1 = Tahrir Square on February11.png | image2 = TahrirSquareAgainstMorsi.jpg }} On 25 January 2011, [[2011 Egyptian revolution|widespread protests]] began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's [[Tahrir Square]] at the news.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |title=Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control |work=Huffington Post |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322095317/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |archive-date=22 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Egyptian military]] then assumed the power to govern.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211081712/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |publisher=BBC |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211192204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]], chairman of the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]], became the ''de facto'' interim [[head of state]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Christopher |last2=Swinford |first2=Steven |date=15 February 2011 |title=WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform' |journal=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=5 March 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310105211/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |title=The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation |date=13 February 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=5 March 2011 |quote=The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427082524/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|access-date=13 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214045727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|archive-date=14 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2011|constitutional referendum]] was held on 19 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Marty |title=The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |website=www.aph.gov.au |language=en-AU}}</ref> On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its [[2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election|first parliamentary election]] since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.<ref>{{cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |title=Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections |newspaper=NPR |publisher=Npr.org |date=28 November 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202183307/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== President Morsi (2012–2013) ==== [[Mohamed Morsi]] was [[2012 Egyptian presidential election|elected president]] on 24 June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics|publisher=CNN|access-date=13 February 2013|date=25 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512224527/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics/|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister [[Hisham Qandil]] announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.<ref>{{cite news|title= Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date= 3 August 2012}}</ref> Liberal and secular groups walked out of the [[Constituent Assembly of Egypt|constituent assembly]] because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |title=Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers |agency=Associated Press |date=23 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129033632/http://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |archive-date=29 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122182256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |archive-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|first=Richard|last=Spencer|date=23 November 2012|access-date=23 November 2012|title=Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127191821/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|archive-date=27 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title=Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421184804/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2012|December 2012 constitutional referendum]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title=Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012|access-date=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208041127/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|archive-date=8 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Political crisis (2013) ==== {{Main|2013 Egyptian coup d'état}} On 3 July 2013, [[June 2013 Egyptian protests|after a wave of public discontent]] with autocratic excesses of Morsi's [[Muslim Brotherhood]] government,<ref name="morsi-think-again">{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202110236/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the military [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|removed]] Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/world/middleeast/egypt.html|title=Army Ousts Egypt's President; Morsi Denounces 'Military Coup'|work=The New York Times|date=3 July 2013|access-date=3 July 2013|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704010457/http://www.nytimes.com//2013//07//04//world//middleeast//egypt.html|archive-date=4 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt]] [[Adly Mansour]] was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Holpuch |first1=Amanda |last2=Siddique |first2=Haroon |last3=Weaver |first3=Matthew |title=Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |work=The Guardian |date=4 July 2013}}</ref> The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps|newspaper=ABC News|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=15 August 2013|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804050054/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|archive-date=4 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904163847/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=28 April 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620091424/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|archive-date=20 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences 529 people to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805081643/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|archive-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|work=Reuters|date=4 July 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729133559/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|archive-date=29 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a [[Constitution of Egypt|new constitution]] following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=18 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119234504/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|archive-date=19 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-01-18 |title=Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> ==== President el-Sisi (2014–present) ==== [[File:Egypt Metro Covid19.jpg|thumb|upright|Women in Cairo wear face masks during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt]] in March 2020.]] On 26 March 2014, Field Marshal [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], Egyptian Defence Minister and Commander-in-Chief [[Egyptian Armed Forces]], retired from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the [[2014 Egyptian presidential election|2014 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/97612/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-ElSisi-bids-military-farewell,-says-he-will.aspx|title=Egypt's El-Sisi bids military farewell, says he will run for presidency|publisher=Ahram Online|date=26 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327220831/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/97612/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-ElSisi-bids-military-farewell,-says-he-will.aspx|archive-date=27 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Former army chief scores landslide victory in Egypt presidential polls|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/29/abdel-fatah-al-sisi-sweeps-victory-egyptian-election|access-date=29 May 2014|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529170438/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/29/abdel-fatah-al-sisi-sweeps-victory-egyptian-election|archive-date=29 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Sisi was sworn into office as [[President of Egypt]] on 8 June 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sisi sworn in as Egypt's president |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20140608-egypt-sisi-inauguration-president |work=France 24 |date=8 June 2014 |language=en}}</ref> The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sisi elected Egypt president by landslide|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/sisi-wins-egypt-elections-landslide-2014529134910264238.html|date=30 May 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602061150/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/sisi-wins-egypt-elections-landslide-2014529134910264238.html|archive-date=2 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Even though the interim authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt election: Sisi secures landslide win|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27614776|publisher=BBC|date=29 May 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722093407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27614776|archive-date=22 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A new parliamentary election was held in December 2015, resulting in a landslide victory for pro-Sisi parties, which secured a strong majority in the newly formed [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's elections committee announces final parliamentary results - Egypt Elections 2015 - Egypt |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/164/173877/Egypt/Egypt-Elections-/Egypts-elections-committee-announces-final-parliam.aspx |work=Ahram Online}}</ref> In 2016, Egypt entered in a diplomatic crisis with Italy following the [[Murder of Giulio Regeni|murder of researcher Giulio Regeni]]: in April 2016, Prime Minister [[Matteo Renzi]] recalled the Italian ambassador from Cairo because of lack of co-operation from the Egyptian Government in the investigation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Giulio Regeni murder: Italy recalls ambassador to Egypt |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36001416 |work=BBC News |date=8 April 2016}}</ref> The ambassador was sent back to Egypt in 2017 by the new Prime Minister [[Paolo Gentiloni]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy to return ambassador to Cairo, ending standoff over murdered student |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-egypt-regeni-murder-idUSKCN1AU1YL |work=Reuters |date=14 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref> El-Sisi was [[2018 Egyptian presidential election|re-elected in 2018]], facing no serious opposition.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt's Sisi wins 97 percent in election with no real opposition |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-election-result-idUSKCN1H916A |work=Reuters |date=2 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In 2019, a series of constitutional amendments were approved by the parliament, further increasing the President's and the military's power, increasing presidential terms from 4 years to 6 years, and allowing incumbent president El-Sisi to run for an additional third term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt parliament extends presidential term to six years |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/egypt-parliament-extends-presidential-term-to-six-years/1454194 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> The proposals [[2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum|were approved in a referendum]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/23/sisi-wins-snap-egyptian-referendum-amid-vote-buying-claims |work=the Guardian |date=23 April 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The dispute between Egypt and [[Ethiopia]] over the [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] escalated in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Decian |title=For Thousands of Years, Egypt Controlled the Nile. A New Dam Threatens That |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/02/09/world/africa/nile-river-dam.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210015121/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/02/09/world/africa/nile-river-dam.html |archive-date=10 February 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam |url=https://qz.com/africa/1874343/egypt-cyber-attack-on-ethiopia-is-strike-over-the-grand-dam/ |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |date=27 June 2020}}</ref> Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat,<ref>{{cite news |title=Are Egypt and Ethiopia heading for a water war? |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/107468/are-egypt-and-ethiopia-heading-for-a-water-war |work=The Week |date=8 July 2020}}</ref> fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the [[Nile]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02124-8 |work=Nature |date=15 July 2020}}</ref> In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary [[2020 Egyptian parliamentary election|election]] confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt's Mostaqbal Watn ([[Nation's Future Party|Nation's Future]]) Party, which strongly supports president el-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pro-Sisi party wins majority in Egypt's parliamentary polls |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/egypt-election-int-idUSKBN28O2T0 |work=Reuters |date=14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In December 2023, el-Sisi won the [[2023 Egyptian presidential election|2023 presidential election]] with 89.6% of the vote, and was re-elected to an additional third term that lasts until 2030. The official turnout was 66.8%, the highest of any Egyptian presidential election since 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/results-due-egypt-election-with-sisi-expected-sweep-third-term-2023-12-18/|access-date=3 March 2024|date=19 December 2023|title=Egypt's Sisi sweeps to third term as president with 89.6% of vote|first1=Farah|last1=Saafan|first2=Aidan|last2=Lewis|work=Reuters}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page