Earth

== Orbit and rotation ==
=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin-tilt-23.4.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Satellite [[Time-lapse photography|time lapse imagery]] of Earth's rotation showing axis tilt]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).<ref name="aj136_5_1906" /> Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer than the mean solar day.<ref name="USNO_TSD" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |access-date=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time ([[UT1]]), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}<ref name="IERS" /><ref group="n" name="Aoki" /> Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[March equinox]] (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator)<!-- , misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'' [don't know what is this] -->, is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.<ref name="IERS" /> Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&nbsp;ms.<ref name="seidelmann1992" />

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.<ref name="zeilik1998" /><ref name="angular" />

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit|Earth's location}}
[[File:Seasons1.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Exaggerated illustration of Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun, marking that the orbital extreme points ([[apoapsis]] and [[periapsis]]) are not the same as the four seasonal extreme points, the [[equinox]] and [[solstice]]]]
Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the [[inner Solar System]]. Earth's average orbital distance is about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}}, which is the basis for the [[Astronomical Unit]] and is equal to roughly 8.3 [[light minute]]s or 380 times [[Lunar distance (astronomy)|Earth's distance to the Moon]].

Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean [[solar day]]s, or one [[sidereal year]]. With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&nbsp;hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]].

The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.<ref name="earth_fact_sheet" />

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.<ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /><ref name="moon_fact_sheet" />

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.<ref name="vazquez_etal2006" /><ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /> This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.<ref name="vazquez_etal2006" /> Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].<ref name="nasa20051201" />

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:axial tilt vs tropical and polar circles.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Earth's axial tilt causing different angles of seasonal illumination at different orbital positions around the Sun]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°<ref name="IERS" /> with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] faces the Sun. In each instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere.

During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rohli|first1=Robert. V.|title=Climatology|last2=Vega|first2=Anthony J.|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|year=2018|isbn=978-1-284-12656-3|edition=fourth|pages=291–292}}</ref> Above the [[Arctic Circle]] and below the [[Antarctic Circle]] there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a [[polar night]], and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a [[midnight sun]], where the sun remains visible all day.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burn|first=Chris|title=The Polar Night|url=http://nwtresearch.com/sites/default/files/the-polar-night.pdf|publisher=The Aurora Research Institute|date=March 1996|access-date=28 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/sunlight-hours/|title=Sunlight Hours|work=Australian Antarctic Programme|date=24 June 2020|access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref>

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.<ref name="bromberg2008" />

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&nbsp;years.<ref name="lin2006" /> The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[axial precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.<ref name="fisher19960205" />

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2948/milankovitch-orbital-cycles-and-their-role-in-earths-climate/|title=Milankovitch (Orbital) Cycles and Their Role in Earth's Climate|work=NASA|last1=Buis|first1=Alan|date=27 February 2020|access-date=27 October 2020}}</ref><ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /> Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ocp.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/div/ocp/pub/seager/Kang_Seager_subm.pdf|title=Croll Revisited: Why is the Northern Hemisphere Warmer than the Southern Hemisphere?|work=Columbia University|last1=Kang|first1=Sarah M.|last2=Seager|first2=Richard|location=New York|access-date=27 October 2020}}</ref>