Augustus

=== Second settlement ===
[[File:Roman - Portrait of Emperor Augustus - Walters 2321.jpg|thumb|upright|Portraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features.]]
By 23&nbsp;BC, some of the un-republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27&nbsp;BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his ''de facto'' dominance over the Roman political system and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=51}} Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the principate in his turn,{{Efn|He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=55}}}} alienating his three greatest supporters: Agrippa, [[Gaius Maecenas|Maecenas]], and Livia.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=294}} He appointed noted republican [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 23 BC)|Calpurnius Piso]] (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus{{Sfn|Davies|2010|page=259}}) as co-consul in 23&nbsp;BC, after his choice [[Aulus Terentius Varro Murena]] died unexpectedly.{{Sfn|Ando|2000|page=140}}{{Sfn|Raaflaub|Samons|1993|page=426}}{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}}

In the late spring Augustus had a severe illness and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the principate in some form,{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=295}} while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=25}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}} This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=38}}

Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|pages=38–39}} With regards to the principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;<ref name="Stern, Gaius p. 23">Stern, Gaius (2006), ''Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus's vision of a new world order in 13 BC'', p. 23</ref> nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor and that they should continue to obey Agrippa, constitutional procedure notwithstanding.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|pages=294–295}}{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}

[[File:Cameo August BM Gem3577.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Blacas Cameo]] showing Augustus wearing a ''[[gorgoneion]]'' on a three layered [[sardonyx]] cameo, AD 20–50]]
Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2&nbsp;BC,{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}} both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.{{Sfn|Davies|2010|page=259}} This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=36}} Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular ''[[imperium]]'' not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the second settlement.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=57}}

The primary reasons for the second settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=37}} When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=56–57}}

A second problem later arose showing the need for the second settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus affair".{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=109}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=299}} In late 24 or early 23&nbsp;BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the [[Odrysian]] kingdom of [[Thrace]], whose king was a Roman ally.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}} He was defended by [[Lucius Licinius Varro Murena]] who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus ordering him to attack the client state.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=300}} Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius''—as Macedonia was a senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as princeps, instituting a form of monarchy&nbsp;– accusations that had already played out.<ref name="Stern, Gaius p. 23" />
[[File:Statue of the Emperor Octavian Augustus as Jupiter 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Augustus as [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD)]]

The situation was so serious that Augustus appeared at the trial even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=333}} Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his ''[[auctoritas]]''. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=333}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=300}}{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}}{{Sfn|Raaflaub|Samons|1993|page=426}}

The second settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general ''imperium proconsulare'', or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=57}} Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}}