Racial segregation in the United States

===Commercial and industrial===
Lila Ammons discusses the process of establishing black-owned banks during the 1880s–1990s, as a method of dealing with the discriminatory practices of financial institutions against African-American citizens of the United States. Within this period, she describes five distinct periods that illustrate the developmental process of establishing these banks, which were:

====1888–1928====
In 1851, one of the first meetings to begin the process of establishing black-owned banks took place, although the ideas and implementation of these ideas were not utilized until 1888.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Annons|first1=Lila|title=Evolution of Black-Owned Banks|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=4|page=469}}</ref>
During this period, approximately 60 black-owned banks were created, which gave blacks the ability to access loans and other banking needs, which non-minority banks would not offer African-Americans.

====1929–1953====
Only five banks were opened during this time, while seeing many black-owned banks closed, leaving these banks with an expected nine-year life span for their operations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1966|volume=26|issue=5|page=473}}</ref> With blacks continuing to migrate toward northern urban areas, they were challenged by high unemployment rates, due to whites taking their jobs.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thieblot|first1=A.|title=The Negro in the Banking Industry: Report no. 9|date=1970|publisher=University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, Department of Industry|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> At this time, the entire [[Banking in the United States|banking industry in the U.S.]] was stagnated, and these smaller banks even more for having higher closure rates and lower rates of loan repayment. The first groups of banks invested their profits back into the black community, whereas banks established during this period invested their finances mainly in [[mortgage loan]]s, [[fraternal societies]], and [[U.S. Bonds|U.S. government bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=476}}</ref>

====1954–1969====
Approximately 20 more banks were established during this period, which also saw African Americans become active citizens by taking part in various social movements centered around economic equality, better housing, better jobs, and the desegregation of society.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=477}}</ref> Through desegregation, these banks could no longer solely depend on the Black community for business and were forced to become established on the open market, by paying their employees competitive wages, and were now required to meet the needs of the entire society instead of just the Black community.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====1970–1979====
Urban [[deindustrialization]] was occurring, resulting in the number of black-owned banks being increased considerably, with 35 banks established, during this time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=478–80}}</ref> Although this change in economy allowed more banks to be opened, this period further impoverished African-American communities, as unemployment rates raised more with the shift in the labour market, from unskilled labour to government jobs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=479–80}}</ref>

====1980–1990s====
Approximately 20 banks were established during this time, competing with other financial institutions that serve the financial necessities of people at a lower cost.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=484}}</ref>

====2000s====
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2003 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for business density, business size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dan |last=Immergluck |s2cid=153818729 |title=Redlining Redux |journal=[[Urban Affairs Review]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=22–41 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/107808702401097781 }}</ref> Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Gregory D. |last=Squires |s2cid=10070258 |title=Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas |journal=Journal of Urban Affairs |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=391–410 |doi=10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168 |year=2003 }}</ref> Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers, a factor that disproportionately affects black workers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |first1=Yves |last1=Zenou |author1-link=Yves Zenou |first2=Nicolas |last2=Boccard |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=260–285 |doi=10.1006/juec.1999.2166 |year=2000 |citeseerx=10.1.1.70.1487 }}</ref>

[[Rich Benjamin]]'s book, ''[[Searching for Whitopia|Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America]]'', reveals the state of residential, educational, and social segregation.  In analyzing racial and class segregation, the book documents the migration of white Americans from urban centers to small-town, exurban, and rural communities. Throughout the 20th Century, racial discrimination was deliberate and intentional. Today, racial segregation and division result from policies and institutions that are no longer explicitly designed to discriminate. Yet the outcomes of those policies and beliefs have negative, racial impacts, namely with segregation.<ref>[[Rich Benjamin|Benjamin, Rich]]. ''Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America''. (New York: Hachette Books, 2009).</ref>