Nelson Mandela

=== End of apartheid ===
{{Main|Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa}}

==== Early negotiations: 1990–91 ====
[[File:Luthuli House.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Luthuli House]] in Johannesburg, which became the ANC headquarters in 1991]]
Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the [[Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa]] concert at Wembley Stadium.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=57|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=172|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=409–410|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=412–414}} Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President [[François Mitterrand]] in France, [[Pope John Paul II]] in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President [[George H. W. Bush]], addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the [[African American]] community.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=58–59|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=415–418}} In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=410|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=420}} He met President [[R. Venkataraman]] in India, President [[Suharto]] in Indonesia, Prime Minister [[Mahathir Mohamad]] in Malaysia, and Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=60|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=418–420}}

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the [[Groote Schuur Minute|Groot Schuur Minute]], in which the government lifted the state of emergency.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=412–413|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=424–427}} He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1,600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=439|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=428–429}} At the ANC's [[48th National Conference of the African National Congress|July 1991 national conference]] in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and wanted to build a task force for securing majority rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}} At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=47|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=173|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=439–440|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=429–430}}

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at [[Shell House (Johannesburg)|Shell House]], Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=409|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with [[Dali Mpofu]], but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the [[International Defence and Aid Fund]] for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], but, in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of [[Houghton Estate|Houghton]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=429–436, 435–460|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=431, 448}} Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "black-on-black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "[[Third Force (South Africa)|third force]]" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the [[Sebokeng]] massacre.{{sfnm|1a1=Tomaselli|1a2=Tomaselli|1y=2003|1p=6|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=174|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=418–424|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=436–442}} In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=425–426|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=444}}

==== CODESA talks: 1991–92 ====
The [[Convention for a Democratic South Africa]] (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, Mandela took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=45, 69|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2pp=174–175|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=443–446|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=456–459}} CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a [[federal system]] with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a [[unitary state|unitary system]] governed by majority rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|p=460}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=448, 452}}.</ref> Following the [[Boipatong massacre]] of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping force]] be stationed in South Africa to prevent "[[state terrorism]]".{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=72–73|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=177|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=462–463|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=461–462}} Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.<ref>{{harvnb|Sampson|2011|pp=462–463}}; {{harvnb|Meredith|2010|pp=466–467}}.</ref>

[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|left|thumb|[[F. W. de Klerk|De Klerk]] and Mandela at the [[World Economic Forum]], 1992]]

Following the [[Bisho massacre]], in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the [[Ciskei Defence Force]] during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off; de Klerk reluctantly agreed.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=177–178|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=467–471|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=463–466}} The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year [[National unity government|coalition government of national unity]] and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=79|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=180|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=467–468}} The duo agreed on [[South African Constitution of 1993|an interim constitution]] based on a [[liberal democratic]] model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style [[bill of rights]]; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own [[premier]] and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for [[federalism]] and Mandela's for unitary government.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=489–491|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=472}}

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the {{Lang|af|[[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging]]|italic=no}} (AWB)—[[Storming of Kempton Park World Trade Centre|attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre]].{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=449–450, 488|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=466, 470–471}} Following the murder of ANC activist [[Chris Hani]], Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=180–181|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=476–480|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=468–469}} In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the United States, independently meeting President [[Bill Clinton]], and each receiving the [[Liberty Medal]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=471}} Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=182|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=494|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=474}} Influenced by [[Thabo Mbeki]], Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and he played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 [[World Economic Forum]] in Switzerland.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=182|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=497|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=434–445, 473}}

==== General election: 1994 ====
{{Main|1994 South African general election}}

[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mandela casting his vote in the [[1994 South African general election|1994 election]]]]

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=495|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=467–477}} The ANC campaigned on a [[Reconstruction and Development Programme]] (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1pp=76–77|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=495–496|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=478}} With the exception of the ''[[Weekly Mail]]'' and the ''[[New Nation]]'', South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or [[Democratic Party (South Africa)|Democratic Party]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=479}} Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|pp=479–480}} He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=188|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=477–478|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=484}}

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the [[Bophuthatswana conflict (1994)|conflict in Bophuthatswana]] and the [[Shell House massacre]]—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, [[Pik Botha]] and [[Constand Viljoen]], persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=488–489, 504–510|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=480–489}} As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=500–501|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=488}} The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=82|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=512|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=491}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |title=Top 10 Political Prisoners |first=Glen |last=Levy |date=15 November 2010 |magazine=Time |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403214733/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2024558_2024522_2024462,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mandela voted at the [[Ohlange High School]] in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=510–512|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=490}}