Mandatory Palestine Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Palestinian Arab community=== {{further|Arab Higher Committee}} {{multiple image | footer = Passports from the British Mandate era | image1 = British Mandate Palestinian passport.jpg | caption1 = Front cover | width1 = 107 | image2 = 2011-07-04 09.41.jpg | caption2 = Biographical pages | width2 = 210 }} The resolution of the [[San Remo Conference]] contained a safeguarding clause for the existing rights of the non-Jewish communities. The conference accepted the terms of the Mandate with reference to Palestine, on the understanding that there was inserted in the memorandum a legal undertaking by the Mandatory Power that it would not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine.<ref>See Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States {{cite web |title=The Paris Peace Conference |year=1919|page =94 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv13&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=94}}</ref> The draft mandates for [[Mandatory Iraq|Mesopotamia]] and Palestine, and all of the post-war peace treaties, contained clauses for the protection of religious groups and minorities. The mandates invoked the compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the event of any disputes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/summaryofworkofl00leagiala|title=Summary of the work of the League of Nations, January 1920 – March 1922|last=League of Nations Union|year=1922|publisher=London|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Article 62 (LXII) of the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]], signed on 13 July 1878,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|title=Internet History Sourcebooks|website=www.fordham.edu|access-date=12 January 2010|archive-date=8 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608120300/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> dealt with religious freedom and [[civil and political rights]] in all parts of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>See Defending the Rights of Others, by Carol Fink, Cambridge University, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-521-02994-0}}, p. 28</ref> The guarantees have frequently been referred to as "religious rights" or "minority rights". However, the guarantees included a prohibition against discrimination in civil and political matters. Difference of religion could not be alleged against any person as a ground for exclusion or incapacity in matters relating to the enjoyment of civil or political rights, admission to public employments, functions, and honours, or the exercise of the various professions and industries, "in any locality whatsoever". A legal analysis performed by the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) noted that the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]] had provisionally recognised the communities of Palestine as independent nations. The mandate simply marked a transitory period, with the aim and object of leading the mandated territory to become an independent self-governing State.<ref name=Ormsby>See the Statement of the Principal Accredited Representative, Hon. [[William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech|W. Ormsby-Gore]], C.330.M.222, Mandate for Palestine [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0145a8233e14d2b585256cbf005af141/fd05535118aef0de052565ed0065ddf7?OpenDocument – Minutes of the Permanent Mandates Commission/League of Nations 32nd session, 18 August 1937] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603232945/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0145a8233e14d2b585256cbf005af141/fd05535118aef0de052565ed0065ddf7?OpenDocument |date=3 June 2011 }}</ref> Judge Higgins explained that the Palestinian people are entitled to their territory, to exercise [[self-determination]], and to have their own State."<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1681.pdf See the Judgment in "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112025712/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1681.pdf |date=2011-01-12 }} (PDF)</ref><!-- Where does this quote begin? No beginning quotation mark present. --> The Court said that specific guarantees regarding freedom of movement and access to the Holy Sites contained in the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] (1878) had been preserved under the terms of the Palestine Mandate and a chapter of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]].<ref>See paragraphs 49, 70, and 129 of the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory [http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1671.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706021237/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1671.pdf |date=2010-07-06 }} and PAUL J. I. M. DE WAART (2005). "International Court of Justice Firmly Walled in the Law of Power in the Israeli–Palestinian Peace Process." ''Leiden Journal of International Law'', 18, pp. 467–487, {{doi|10.1017/S0922156505002839}}</ref> According to historian [[Rashid Khalidi]], the mandate ignored the political rights of the Arabs.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=32–33}} The Arab leadership repeatedly pressed the British to grant them national and political rights, such as representative government, over Jewish national and political rights in the remaining 23% of the Mandate of Palestine which the British had set aside for a Jewish homeland. The Arabs reminded the British of [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]] and British promises during the [[First World War]]. The British, however, made acceptance of the terms of the mandate a precondition for any change in the constitutional position of the Arabs. A legislative council was proposed in [[Constitution of Mandatory Palestine|The Palestine Order in Council]], of 1922, which implemented the terms of the mandate. It stated that: "No Ordinance shall be passed which shall be in any way repugnant to or inconsistent with the provisions of the Mandate." For the Arabs, this decree was unacceptable, akin to "self murder".{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=33–34}} As a result, the Arabs boycotted the [[1923 Palestinian Legislative Council election|elections to the Council]] held in 1923, which were subsequently annulled.<ref>"Palestine. The Constitution Suspended., Arab Boycott Of Elections., Back To British Rule" ''The Times'', 30 May 1923, p. 14, Issue 43354</ref> During the interwar period, the British rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give Arabs control of the government.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=32, 36}} The terms of the mandate required the establishment of self-governing institutions in both Palestine and Transjordan. In 1947, the [[Foreign Secretary]], [[Ernest Bevin]], admitted that, during the previous twenty-five years, the British had done their best to further the legitimate aspirations of the Jewish communities without prejudicing the interests of the Arabs, but had failed to "secure the development of self-governing institutions" in accordance with the terms of the Mandate.<ref>See Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa Volume V, p. 1033</ref> ====Palestinian Arab leadership and national aspirations==== {{main|Palestinian Nationalism|Arab nationalism}} [[File:Palestine 1930.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1930 protest in [[Jerusalem]] against the British Mandate by Arab women. The sign reads "No dialogue, no negotiations until termination of the Mandate."]] Under the British Mandate, the office of "Mufti of Jerusalem", traditionally limited in authority and geographical scope, was refashioned into that of "Grand Mufti of Palestine". Furthermore, a Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) was established and given various duties, such as the administration of [[waqf|religious endowments]] and the appointment of [[qadi|religious judges]] and local muftis. In Ottoman times, these duties had been fulfilled by the Imperial bureaucracy in [[Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]).{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=63}} In dealings with the Palestinian Arabs, the British negotiated with the elite rather than the middle or lower classes.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=52}} They chose [[Hajj Amin al-Husseini]] to become Grand Mufti, although he was young and had received the fewest votes from Jerusalem's Islamic leaders.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=56–57}} One of the mufti's rivals, [[Raghib al-Nashashibi|Raghib Bey al-Nashashibi]], had already been appointed [[Mayor of Jerusalem]] in 1920, replacing [[Musa al-Husseini|Musa Kazim]], whom the British removed after the [[1920 Palestine riots|Nabi Musa riots of 1920]],{{sfnm|Khalidi|2006|1pp=63, 69|Segev|2000|2pp=127–144}} during which he exhorted the crowd to give their blood for Palestine.{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=112}} During the entire Mandate period, but especially during the latter half, the rivalry between the mufti and al-Nashashibi dominated Palestinian politics. Khalidi ascribes the failure of the Palestinian leaders to enroll mass support to the fact that they had been part of the ruling elite and accustomed to their commands being obeyed; thus, the idea of mobilising the masses was unknown to them.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=81}} On the Husseini-Nashashibi rivalry, an editorial in the Arabic-language ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper in the 1920s commented:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nlis/en/jrayed/Pages/Filastin.aspx|title=Filastin|work=National Library of Israel|access-date=4 March 2019}}</ref> {{blockquote|The spirit of factionalism has penetrated most levels of society; one can see it among journalists, trainees, and the rank and file. If you ask anyone: who does he support? He will reply with pride, Husseini or Nashasibi, or ... he will start to pour out his wrath against the opposing camp in a most repulsive manner.}} There had already been rioting and attacks on and massacres of Jews in [[Jaffa riots|1921]] and [[1929 Palestine riots|1929]]. During the 1930s, Palestinian Arab popular discontent with Jewish immigration grew. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, several factions of Palestinian society, especially from the younger generation, became impatient with the internecine divisions and ineffectiveness of the Palestinian elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism, organised by groups such as the [[Young Men's Muslim Association]]. There was also support for the radical nationalist [[Independence Party (Palestine)|Independence Party]] (''Hizb al-Istiqlal''), which called for a boycott of the British in the manner of the [[Indian Independence Movement#Salt March and civil disobedience|Indian Congress Party]]. Some took to the hills to [[Black Hand (Palestine)|fight the British and the Jews]]. Most of these initiatives were contained and defeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin [[Jamal al-Husseini]]. A six-month general strike in 1936 marked the start of the great Arab Revolt.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=87–90}} ====Palestinian Arab journalism==== {{Main|History of Palestinian journalism}} [[File:A 1936 caricature published in the Falastin newspaper on Zionism and Palestine.png|thumb|The Palestinian [[Arab Christian]]-owned ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper featuring a caricature on its 18 June 1936 edition showing Zionism as a crocodile under the protection of a British officer telling Palestinian Arabs: "don't be afraid!!! I will swallow you peacefully...."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sufian |first=Sandy |title=Anatomy of the 1936–39 Revolt: Images of the Body in Political Cartoons of Mandatory Palestine |journal=Journal of Palestine Studies |date=1 January 2008 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=23–42|doi=10.1525/jps.2008.37.2.23 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13805989 |access-date=14 January 2008}}</ref>]] After the Palestinian Arab press during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman period]] had been suppressed due to the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914, only two of the three leading newspapers of the Ottoman era were reopened during the mandate period, ''[[Al-Karmil (newspaper)|Al-Karmil]]'' and ''[[Falastin (newspaper)|Falastin]]''. During this period, the press became more diverse, and increasingly reflected different political factions and national consciousness. According to one survey in the mid 1930s, over 250 Arabic newspapers and 65 in other languages were circulating in Mandatory Palestine.{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} Twenty newspapers were established in [[Jerusalem]], six in [[Jaffa]], twelve in [[Haifa]], and others in [[Bethlehem]], [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and [[Tulkarem]].{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} The Ottoman Press Law, which mandated licensing and the submission of translations to government authorities, was adopted by the British, but they rarely interfered until the [[1929 Palestine riots]], which saw violent confrontations between Arabs and Zionists, and led to a radicalization of Arab newspapers. One outspoken newspaper was established in [[Jaffa]] called ''[[Al Difa|Al-Difa']]'' (''The Defense'') in 1934, which was associated with [[Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)|Hizb Al-Istiqlal]] (The Independence Party).{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} ''Falastin'' and ''Al-Difa''' became the two most prominent dailies during the mandate period, and a rivalry developed between the two, which led to improvements in their quality.{{sfn|Gorman|Monciaud|2018|p=106}} Many of the editors and owners of newspapers were members of political organizations, and used their publications for mobilizing the public.{{sfn|Regan|2018|p=135, 137}} The British authorities' attitude towards Palestinian press was initially tolerant, given they had assessed that their impact on public life was minimal, but restrictive measures were soon increasingly introduced. A new Publications Law was issued in 1933, which gave the British authorities the power to revoke publication permits, suspend newspapers, and punish journalists. Regulations were issued that further restricted freedom of the press. Many major publications were suspended for extended periods between 1937 and 1938, including ''Falastin'', ''Al-Difa'', and ''Al-Liwa''. After the outbreak of [[World War II]], emergency laws were enacted and the British closed almost all the newspapers, with the exception of ''Falastin'' and ''Al-Difa'', due to the moderation of their tone and the publishing of censored news.{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=386-387}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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