Judaism

==Jewish religious movements==
{{Main|Jewish religious movements}}

===Rabbinic Judaism===
Rabbinic Judaism (or in some older sources, Rabbinism;<ref>{{Cite web |title=RABBI |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12494 |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com |quote=After the foundation for a scientific treatment of Jewish history and religion had been laid by Leopold Zunz and his colaborers, a number of enthusiastic young rabbis, struggling against the most violent opposition, strove to bring about a reconciliation of ''rabbinism'' with the modern scientific spirit |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010133923/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12494 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hebrew: "Yahadut Rabanit" – יהדות רבנית) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the [[Written Torah]] (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.{{sfn|Neusner|Avery-Peck|2003|pp=78–92}}{{sfn|Schiffman|2003|p=}}<ref name="Brabbinic" />

The [[Jewish Enlightenment]] of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Western Jewry (primeraly, the [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]], but also western part of [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardim]] and [[Italian Jews|Italian rite Jews]], a.k.a. ''Italkim'', and Greek [[Romaniote Jews]]—both last groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim) into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different){{sfn|Deshen|Liebman|Shokeid|2017}} are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative{{sfn|Jacobs|2007|p=}} or solely the Orthodox Jews:{{sfn|Rudavsky|1979|pp=98–115}}{{sfn|Mendes-Flohr|2005|p=}}
[[File:Haredi (Orthodox) Jewish Couples at Bus Stop - Outside Old City - Jerusalem (5684561290).jpg|thumb|Two Haredi Jewish couples at a bus stop in Jerusalem]] [[File:PikiWiki Israel 29771 Kiryat Belz.jpg|thumb|Hasids at front of [[Belz Great Synagogue]], Jerusalem]]
* [[Orthodox Judaism]] holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to [[Moses]] and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the ''[[Shulchan Aruch]]'' (a condensed codification of ''halakha'' that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of ''halakha''. Orthodoxy places a high importance on [[13 Principles of Faith|Maimonides' 13 principles]] as a definition of Jewish faith.

:Orthodoxy is often divided into [[Haredi Judaism]] and [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]. Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism along both ethnic and ideological lines include [[Hardal]] ("Nationalist Haredi" within [[Religious Zionism]]); [[Hasidic Judaism]], which is rooted in the [[Kabbalah]] and distinguished by reliance on a [[Rebbe]]{{sfn|Jacobs|2003|loc="Rebbe, Hasidic"}} or religious teacher; their traditionalist opponents the ''[[Misnagdim]]'' (also known as Lithuanian or ''Lita'im''); and [[Sephardic Haredi]] Judaism, which emerged among [[Sephardic]] and [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel.{{sfn|Rudavsky|1979|pp=218–270, 367–402}}{{sfn|Raphael|1984|pp=125–176}}{{sfn|Nadler|1997}}{{sfn|Neusner|Avery-Peck|2003|pp=311–333}}{{sfn|Jacobs|2003|loc="Orthodox Judaism"}}{{sfn|Zohar|2005|p=}}{{sfn|Segal|2008|pp=113–117}} "Centrist" Orthodoxy ([[Joseph B. Soloveitchik]]) is sometimes also distinguished.{{sfn|Segal|2008|pp=121–123}}
[[File:Rabot - Torah.JPG|thumb|Conservative women rabbis, Israel]]
* [[Conservative Judaism]] (known as ''Masorti Judaism'' outside North America and Israel) is characterized by a commitment to traditional ''halakha'' and customs, including observance of [[Shabbat]] and [[kashrut]], a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that ''halakha'' is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.{{sfn|Rudavsky|1979|pp=317–346}}{{sfn|Raphael|1984|pp=79–124}}{{sfn|Gillman|1993}}{{sfn|Neusner|Avery-Peck|2003|pp=334–353}}{{sfn|Jacobs|2003|loc="Conservative Judaism"}}{{sfn|Elazar|Geffen|2012|p=}}<ref name="Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views" /><ref name="Conservative Judaism" /> Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.
* [[Reform Judaism]], called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the [[Torah]] while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the [[Nevi'im|Prophets]]. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.{{sfn|Rudavsky|1979|pp=156–185, 285–316}}{{sfn|Raphael|1984|pp=1–78}}{{sfn|Meyer|1988|pp=177–194}}{{sfn|Neusner|Avery-Peck|2003|pp=291–310}}{{sfn|Jacobs|2003|loc="Reform Judaism"}}{{sfn|Karesh|Hurvitz|2005|pp=419–422|loc="Reform Judaism"}}
* [[Reconstructionist Judaism]], like Reform Judaism, does not hold that ''halakha'', as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow. It sometimes recognized as the 4th major stream of Judaism.{{sfn|Rudavsky|1979|pp=347–366}}{{sfn|Raphael|1984|pp=177–194}}{{sfn|Wertheimer|1993|p=169}}{{sfn|Jacobs|2003|loc="Reconstructionism"}}{{sfn|Mendes-Flohr|2005}}{{sfn|Karesh|Hurvitz|2005|pp=416–418|loc="Reconstructionist Judaism"}}
* [[Jewish Renewal]] is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of ''halakha''. Men and women participate equally in prayer.<ref name="Magid2005">{{cite encyclopedia |surname=Magid |given=Shaul |author-link=Shaul Magid |year=2005 |title=Jewish Renewal Movement |editor-surname=Jones |editor-given=Lindsay |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |place=Farmington Hills, Mi |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |edition=2nd |volume=7 |pages=4868–74 |format=PDF |url=https://www.academia.edu/41218249 |isbn=0-02-865740-3 |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407073638/https://www.academia.edu/41218249 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Segal|2008|pp=123–129}}
* [[Humanistic Judaism]] is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes [[Jewish culture]] and history as the sources of Jewish identity.{{sfn|Karesh|Hurvitz|2005|p=221|loc="Humanistic Judaism"}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Humanistic Judaism |surname=Cohn-Sherbok |given=Dan |author-link=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |title=Encyclopedia of new religious movements |pages=288–289 |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |editor-surname=Clarke |editor-given=Peter B. |editor-link=Peter B. Clarke |place=London; New York |url={{Google books|id=heeCAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=9-78-0-415-26707-6}}</ref>
* [[Subbotniks]] (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of [[Russians|Russian]] ethnic origin in the 18th–20th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism.<ref>{{JewishEncyclopedia |author-link=Herman Rosenthal |surname=Rosenthal |given=Herman |surname2=Hurwitz |given2=S. |entry=Subbotniki ("Sabbatarians") |entry-url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14094-subbotniki}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Glenn Dynner |last=Dynner |first=Glenn |title=Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe |place=Detroit, Mi |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=2011 |url={{Google books|id=bYnlGaeUBx0C|plainurl=y|page=358|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-0-8143-3597-0 |pages=358–359 |archive-date=2023-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203459/https://books.google.com/books?id=bYnlGaeUBx0C&pg=PT358 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many settled in the [[Holy Land]] as part of the Zionist [[First Aliyah]] in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included [[Alexander Zaïd]], Major-General Alik Ron,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3992298,00.html |title=Russia's Subbotnik Jews get rabbi |author=Weiss, Ruchama |author2=Brackman, Levi |publisher=Israel Jewish Scene |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=2015-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501183834/https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3992298,00.html |url-status=live |archive-date=2021-05-01}}</ref> and the mother of [[Ariel Sharon]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4497612,00.html |title=Subbotnik Jews to resume aliyah |author=Eichner, Itamar |publisher=Israel Jewish Scene |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=2014-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409152315/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4497612,00.html |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-04-09}}</ref>

====Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism====
{{see also|Sephardic Haredim|Sephardic law and customs}}
[[File:Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg|thumb|[[El Ghriba synagogue]] in [[Djerba]], Tunisia]]
While [[Minhag|traditions and customs]] vary between discrete communities, it can be said that [[Sephardi]] (Iberian, for example, most [[History of the Jews in France|Jews from France]] and [[Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]]) and [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] (Oriental) Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the "movement" framework popular in and among [[Ashkenazi]] Jewry.<ref>{{cite web |last=Elazar|first=Daniel|title=Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?|url=http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm|website=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|access-date=2018-05-15|archive-date=22 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061022155306/http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a "big tent" approach.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jager |first=Elliot |title=Sephardi Judaism Straining to Stay Non-Denominational|url=https://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Sephardi-Judaism-Straining-to-Stay-Non-Denominational-513181|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=2018-05-15|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516014757/https://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Sephardi-Judaism-Straining-to-Stay-Non-Denominational-513181|url-status=live}}</ref> This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world. (However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews or some their communities may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.){{sfn|Zohar|2005|p=}} Among the pioneers of Reform Judaism in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation [[Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim|Beth Elohim]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]].{{sfn|Meyer|1988|pp=232–235}} A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization.<ref>{{cite journal |surname=Ferziger |given=Adam S. |author-link=Adam Ferziger |title=Between 'Ashkenazi' and Sepharad: An Early Modern German Rabbinic Response to Religious Pluralism in the Spanish-Portuguese Community |journal=Studia Rosenthaliana |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |date=Spring 2001 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=7–22 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36844984 |jstor=41482436 |access-date=6 July 2023 |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716001528/https://www.academia.edu/36844984 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the traditional (Orthodox) and [[Nusach (Jewish custom)|prayer rites]] are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic [[Chief Rabbinate of Israel|Chief Rabbi of Israel]].{{sfn|Zohar|2005|p=}}{{sfn|Deshen|Liebman|Shokeid|2017|loc=Part 5 "The Sephardic Pattern"}}{{sfn|Berlin|2011|p=166|loc="Chief Rabbinate"}}

====Jewish movements in Israel====
{{Main|Religion in Israel}}
In Israel, as in the West, Judaism is also divided into major Orthodox, Conservative and Reform traditions.<ref name="Tabory1990">{{cite book |year=2004 |orig-date=1990 |surname=Tabory |given=Ephraim |chapter=Reform and Conservative Judaism in Israel |title=Social Foundations of Judaism |editor-surname=Goldscheider |editor-given=Calvin |editor-surname2=Neusner |editor-given2=Jacob |editor-link2=Jacob Neusner |place=Eugene, Or |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publ. |edition=Reprint |pages=240–258 |chapter-url= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2TxLAwAAQBAJ |isbn=1-59244-943-3 |access-date=24 June 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624193459/https://books.google.com/books?id=2TxLAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Deshen|Liebman|Shokeid|2017|loc=Ch. 18 "Americans in the Israeli Reform and Conservative Denominations"}}<ref name="Beit-Hallahmi">{{cite encyclopedia |surname=Beit-Hallahmi |given=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi |entry=Jewish Religious Life in State of Israel |editor-surname=Berlin |editor-given=Adele |editor-link=Adele Berlin |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion  |edition=2nd |pages=385–387 |entry-url={{Google books|id=hKAaJXvUaUoC|plainurl=y|page=385|keywords=|text=}} |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford; New York |url={{Google books|id=hKAaJXvUaUoC|plainurl=y}} |isbn=978-0-19-975927-9}}</ref> At the same time, for statistical and practical purposes, a different division of society is used there on the basis of a person's attitude to religion.

Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "[[Jewish secularism|secular]]" (''[[hiloni]]''), "traditional" (''[[masortim|masorti]]''), "religious" (''[[Orthodox Judaism|dati]]'') or "ultra-religious" (''[[Haredi Judaism|haredi]]'').<ref name="Beit-Hallahmi" /><ref name="Kedem">{{cite book |surname=Kedem |given=Peri |chapter=Demensions of Jewish Religiosity |year=2017 |orig-date=1995 |editor-surname=Deshen |editor-given=Shlomo |editor-surname2=Liebman |editor-given2=Charles S. |editor-link2=Charles Liebman |editor-surname3=Shokeid |editor-given3=Moshe |editor-link3=Moshe Shokeid |title=Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel |series=Studies of Israeli Society, 7 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=33–62 |edition=Reprint |chapter-url={{Google books|id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=33}} |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-56000-178-2 |access-date=7 July 2023 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163510/https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).

The term "traditional" (''masorti'') is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with Conservative Judaism, which also names itself "Masorti" outside North America. Only a few authors, like Elliot Nelson Dorff, consider the American Conservative (masorti) movement and Israeli masorti sector to be one and the same.{{sfn|Berlin|2011|p=350}} There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term "Orthodox" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called ''dati'' (religious, including [[Religious Zionism|religious zionist]]) or ''haredi'' (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel.<ref name="Beit-Hallahmi" /><ref name="Kedem" /> The former term includes what is called "religious Zionism" or the "National Orthodox" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as ''haredi-leumi'' ([[nationalism|nationalist]] ''haredi''), or "Hardal", which combines a largely ''haredi'' lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in [[Yiddish]], also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as ''[[frum]]'', as opposed to ''frei'' (more liberal Jews)).{{sfn|Deshen|Liebman|Shokeid|2017|loc=Part 4 "Nationalist Orthodoxy"}}

===Karaites and Samaritans===
[[Karaite Judaism]] defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the [[Second Temple]] period, such as the [[Sadducees]]. The Karaites ("Scripturalists") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the [[Peshat]] ("simple" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.<ref name="JEkaraites">{{JewishEncyclopedia|first1=Kaufmann |last1=Kohler |author-link1=Kaufmann Kohler |first2=Abraham|last2=Harkavy| author-link2= Abraham Harkavy |title=Karaites and Karaism|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9211-karaites-and-karaism}}</ref>

The [[Samaritans]], a very small community located entirely around [[Mount Gerizim]] in the [[Nablus]]/[[Shechem]] region of the [[West Bank]] and in [[Holon]], near [[Tel Aviv]] in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|kingdom of Israel]]. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written [[Torah]] (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the [[Book of Joshua (Samaritan)|Samaritan Book of Joshua]]).
[[File:Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg|thumb|Beta Israeli [[Kahen]] at the Western Wall]]

===Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)===
{{See also|Haymanot|Beta Israel}}
Haymanot (meaning "religion" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier. Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like [[Sigd]].

=== Noahide (''B'nei Noah'' movement) ===
{{Further|Noahidism}}
[[Noahidism]] is a [[Jewish religious movements|Jewish]] [[New religious movement|religious movement]] based on the [[Seven Laws of Noah]] and their traditional interpretations within [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. According to the ''halakha'', non-Jews ([[gentiles]]) are not obligated to [[Conversion to Judaism|convert to Judaism]], but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the [[World to Come#Jewish eschatology|World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba)]], the final reward of the righteous. The divinely ordained penalty for violating any of the Laws of Noah is discussed in the Talmud, but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large. Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as {{transl|he|B'nei Noach}} (Hebrew: {{lang|he|בני נח}}, 'Children of Noah') or ''Noahides'' ([[Help:IPA/English|/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/]]). Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades by both Noahides and Orthodox Jews.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feldman |first=Rachel Z. |date=August 2018 |title=The Children of Noah: Has Messianic Zionism Created a New World Religion? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/737561/pdf |journal=[[Nova Religio|Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=115–128 |doi=10.1525/nr.2018.22.1.115 |s2cid=149940089 |format=PDF |via=[[Project MUSE]] |access-date=18 December 2020 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526150243/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/737561/pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historically, the Hebrew term ''B'nei Noach'' has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah. However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Seven Laws of Noah.