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Do not fill this in! ==Practices== ===Asceticism and monasticism=== {{Main|Asceticism|Jain monasticism}} {{multiple image | total_width = 275 | image1 = Ellora, cave 33, Digambar Jain guru (9841591645).jpg | caption1 = Digambara sadhu (monk) | image2 = Acharya Vijayavallabhasuri.jpg | caption2 = Śvētāmbara-Deravasi sadhu (monk) | caption3 = Śvētāmbara-Sthanakwasi sadhu (monk) | image3 = Jain Sthanakvasi monk.jpg }} {{multiple image |total_width=275 | image1 = Jain 1.jpg | caption1 = A Śvētāmbara sadhvi (nun)(early 20th-century) | image2 = Viramati Mataji.jpg | caption2 = A Digambara sadhvi (nun) }} Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|p=113}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=169–174, 178–198 with footnotes}} Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching ''siddha'' and ''moksha'' ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=118–122}}{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=205–212 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=144–150}} Jain texts like ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' and ''[[Uttaradhyayana|Uttaradhyayana Sūtra]]'' discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–21}} Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–122}} Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting [[mendicants]], studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=120–122}} Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|p=182 with footnote 3}}{{sfn|Johnson|1995|pp=196–197}} Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the ''jiva'' (soul).{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=169–174, 178–198 with footnotes}} The ''tirthankaras'' such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Shanti Lal Jain|1998|p=51}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=15–18, 41–43}} Monastic organization, ''sangh'', has a four-fold order consisting of ''sadhu'' (male ascetics, ''muni''), ''sadhvi'' (female ascetics, ''aryika''), ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvaka]]'' (laymen), and ''śrāvikā'' (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called ''gacch'' or ''samuday'', in autonomous regional Jain congregations.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2009|p=17}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=2–3}} Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the ''Dandasan'' – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|p=197}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=152, 163–164}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=190}} ===Food and fasting=== {{Main|Jain vegetarianism|Fasting in Jainism}} The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being [[Jain vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Devout Jains practice [[lacto-vegetarianism]], meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. [[Veganism]] is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=105}} Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid [[root vegetable]]s such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=260}}{{efn|In Jainism, the ''ahiṃsā'' precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}}} Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=285}} Jains fast particularly during festivals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'',{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=85–86}} and may be practiced according to one's ability.{{sfn|Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|2008|pp=92–94}} Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=72}} Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=72, 85–86}} The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya'').{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=85}} Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=86}} ===Meditation=== {{main|Jain meditation}} {{multiple image | image1 = Jain meditation.jpg | image2 = Shravanabelagola_Bahubali_wideframe.jpg | footer = Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th-century [[Gommateshwara statue]] depicting standing meditation ([[Kayotsarga]] posture) | total_width=330 }} Jainism considers meditation (''dhyana'') a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=166–169}} In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=166–169}} According to [[Padmanabh Jaini]], ''[[Sāmāyika]]'' is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of ''siksavrata'' (ritual restraint).{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–181}} The goal of ''Sāmāyika'' is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second ''siksavrata''.{{efn|The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is ''posadhopavasa'' (fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is ''dana'' (giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–181}}}} The ''samayika'' ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as ''Puja'' in a Jain temple and doing charity work.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|S.A. Jain|1992|p=261}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=128–131}} According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, ''samayika'' connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".{{sfn|Johnson|1995|pp=189–190}}{{efn|According to Dundas, ''samayika'' seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=170}}}} ===Rituals and worship=== {{Main|Jain rituals}} [[File:Shravanbelgola Gomateshvara feet prayer1.jpg|thumb|left|Praying at the feet of a statue of [[Bahubali]]]] There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162–165, 295–296}} The ultimate ritual is ''sallekhana'', a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}} The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=187–189}} The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=291–299}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=186–187}} Jains ritually worship numerous deities,{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=162–165, 295–296}} especially the ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|Jinas]]''. In Jainism a ''Jina'' as ''deva'' is not an [[avatar]] (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic ''tirthankara'' achieved.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=295–299}} Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, [[Parshvanatha]], [[Neminatha]] and [[Rishabhanatha]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=40}} Among the non-''tirthankara'' saints, devotional worship is common for [[Bahubali]] among the Digambaras.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=182–184}} The ''[[Panch Kalyanaka]]'' rituals remember the five life events of the ''tirthankaras'', including the ''[[Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava]]'', ''Panch Kalyanaka Puja'' and ''Snatrapuja''.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=196, 343, 347}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=196–199}} [[File:A Jain ritual offerings and puja recital at a temple, worship in Jainism.jpg|thumb|upright|Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=45–46, 215}}]] The basic ritual is ''darsana'' (seeing) of ''deva'', which includes Jina,{{sfn|Lindsay Jones|2005|p=4771}} or other [[Yaksha|yaksas]], gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]], [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] and 16 Vidyadevis (including [[Sarasvati]] and [[Lakshmi]]).{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=33, 59, 92, 138, 191}}{{sfn|Cort|1987|pp=235–255}}{{sfn|Mishra|Ray|2016|pp=141–148}} Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=365}} The worship ritual is called ''devapuja'', and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=199–200}} Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the [[namaskar]], completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=199–200}} Jain practices include performing ''[[abhisheka]]'' (ceremonial bath) of the images.{{sfn|Pratapaditya Pal|1986|p=29}} Some Jain sects employ a ''pujari'' (also called ''upadhye''), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=204–205}}{{sfn|Salvadori|1989|pp=169–170}} More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.{{sfn|Babb|1996|pp=32–33}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=45–46, 215}} Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of [[mantra]]s and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=81–82}}{{sfn|Nayanar|2005|p=35}} The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (''[[Namokar Mantra|panca namaskara]]'') mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=81–82}}{{sfn|Voorst|2015|p=107}} Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the ''Rishi-mandala'' including the ''tirthankaras''.{{sfn|Gough|2012|pp=1–47}} The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.{{sfn|Cort|2001b|pp=417–419}} ===Festivals=== {{Main|Jain festivals}} [[File:Das Lakshana (Paryusana) celebrations, New York City Jain temple 2.JPG|thumb|left|Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryushana), [[Jain Center of America]], New York City]] The most important annual Jain festival is called the ''[[Paryushana]]'' by Svetambaras and ''[[Dasha-Lakshana-Parvan|Dasa lakshana parva]]'' by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of [[Bhadra (Hindu calendar)|Bhadrapada]] in the [[Hindu calendar|Indian calendar]]. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}}{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=673}} It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}} It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=673}} Svetambaras recite the ''Kalpasūtras'', while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}} {{Quote box |quote = '''Forgiveness''' <poem> I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. </poem> |source = — ''Jain festival prayer on the last day''{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=284}} |bgcolor=#FFDDBB |align = right }} The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as ''[[Samvatsari]]''. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|pp=164, 284}} Forgiveness is asked by saying "''[[Micchami Dukkadam]]''" or "''Khamat khamna''" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of ''Paryushana'' is "abiding" or "coming together".{{sfn|Cort|1995|p=160}} [[Mahavir Jayanti|Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]] celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of [[Chaitra]] in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=220}}{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=211}} The festivities include visiting Jain temples, [[Tirtha (Jainism)|pilgrimages]] to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in [[Bihar]], north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=220}} [[Diwali (Jainism)|The next day of Dipawali]] is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]''.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=86}} The Hindu festival of [[Diwali]] is also celebrated on the same date (''Kartika Amavasya''). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and [[Diya (lamp)|''diyas'']] (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, ''Nirvan Ladoo'' is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=86}} Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are [[Akshaya Tritiya]] and [[Raksha Bandhan]], similar to those in the Hindu communities.{{sfn|Pechilis|Raj|2013|p=85}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010a|p=164}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page