Hinduism

== Main traditions ==

=== Denominations ===
{{Further|Hindu denominations}}
[[File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg|thumb|A Ganesha-centric [[Panchayatana puja|Panchayatana]] ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): [[Ganesha]] (centre) with [[Shiva]] (top left), [[Parvati]] (top right), [[Vishnu]] (bottom left) and [[Surya]] (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.]]

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'', ''Smartism'', and ''Vaishnavism''.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the [[soteriology|soteriological]] outlook.<ref name="sskumar">SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ The global religious landscape: Hindus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ |date=9 February 2020}}, Pew Research (2012)</ref> Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252&nbsp;million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30&nbsp;million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25&nbsp;million or 2.6%.{{sfn|Johnson|Grim|2013|p=400}}<ref>See also {{harv|Klostermaier|2007|p=199}}</ref> In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{dubious|date=February 2022}}}}

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu{{Refn|group=note|sometimes with [[Lakshmi]], the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=65 and Chapter 5}}}} and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=15–17}} The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" ''Krishna'' and other Vishnu avatars.<ref name=sskumar /> These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of [[Kirtan]]s and [[Bhajan]]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nettl |first1=Bruno |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: the Indian subcontinent |last2=Stone |first2=Ruth M. |last3=Porter |first3=James |last4=Rice |first4=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |pages=246–247 |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011163910/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.<ref>{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|pp=1441, 376}}</ref>

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar /> Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.<ref name="lancenelson">{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|year=2007|pp=562–563}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=209}} Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles ([[Ardhanarishvara]]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson /> Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the [[Kumbh Mela]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2010), ''God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538614-1}}</ref> Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=141–145}}

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar /> and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like [[Parvati]], the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with [[Tantra]] practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scaligero |first=Massimo |year=1955 |title=The Tantra and the Spirit of the West |journal=East and West |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=291–296 |jstor=29753633}}</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>'''History:''' Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pp. 1–18;<br />'''Modern practices:''' June McDaniel (2010), ''Goddesses in World Culture'', Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), {{ISBN|978-0-313-35465-6}}, Chapter 2</ref>

[[Smartism]] centers its worship simultaneously on all the major [[Hindu deities]]: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, [[Surya]] and [[Kartikeya|Skanda]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996}} The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards [[Adi Shankara]] as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes ([[Saguna Brahman]]) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).<ref name="williamw">{{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=William |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |publisher=Stanford University |year=2012 |chapter=Concepts of God |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Murthy |first=U |title=Samskara |url=https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-561079-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan/page/n150 150]}}</ref> The term ''Smartism'' is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref name="williamsonp89">{{cite book|first=L |last=Williamson |year=2010 |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9450-0 |page=89}}</ref> This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Murray |title=Status and Sacredness |url=https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-508489-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln/page/194 194]–197}}</ref>

=== Ethnicities ===
[[File:Prambanan Java245.jpg|thumb|[[Prambanan]] Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, [[Java]], Indonesia]]
[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|[[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] at [[Pura Besakih]], one of the most significant [[Balinese Hinduism]] temples]]
{{See also|Hinduism in South Asia|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism in Java|Hinduism in Vietnam|Hinduism in the West|label 2=Southeast Asia|label 3=Bali|l4=Java|l5=Vietnam|l6=West}}

Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] religion. On the [[Indian subcontinent]], it is widespread among many [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]], [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] and other [[South Asian ethnic groups]],{{sfn|West|2010}} for example, the [[Meitei people]] ([[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state [[Manipur]]).{{sfn|Singh|2004}}

In addition, in antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], Hinduism was the [[state religion]] in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the ''[[Greater India]]''{{snd}}from Afghanistan ([[Kabul]]) in the West and including almost all of [[Southeast Asia]] in the East ([[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], partly [[Philippines]]){{snd}}and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,{{sfnm|1a1=Cœdès|1y=1968|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=|3a1=Acri|3a2=Creese|3a3=Griffiths|3y=2011|3p=}}<ref name="spread">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|url-status=live}}</ref> except several still Hindu minor [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ethnic groups, such as the [[Balinese people|Balinese]]{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} and [[Tenggerese people]]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in Indonesia, and the [[Chams]] in Vietnam.{{sfnm|1a1=Phuong|1a2=Lockhart|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=231}} Also, a small community of the Afghan [[Pashtuns]] who migrated to India after [[partition of India|partition]] remain committed to Hinduism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |title=Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots |author=Haider, Suhasini |date=3 February 2018 |website=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822082221/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indo-Aryan [[Kalash people]] in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as a form of [[ancient Hinduism]].{{sfn|Michael|2004}}{{sfn|West|2010|p=[{{Google books|id=pCiNqFj3MQsC|plainurl=y|page=357|keywords=|text=}} 357]|loc=quote: "The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies."}}

There are many new ethnic [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghanaian Hindus]] in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of [[Swami Ghanananda Saraswati]] and [[Hindu Monastery of Africa]]<ref name="Joshi">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10401741.stm |title=Ghana's unique African-Hindu temple |author=[[Rajesh Joshi]] |website=BBC News |date= |access-date= |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231013628/https://www.bbc.com/news/10401741 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.{{sfn|Carney|2020}}