Resurrection

== Technological resurrection ==
=== Cryonics ===
[[Cryonics]] is the [[Cryopreservation|low-temperature freezing]] (usually at {{cvt|−196|C|F K|disp=or}}) of a human corpse or severed head, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the [[future]].<ref>{{cite news|last=McKie|first=Robin|title=Cold facts about cryonics|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2002/jul/14/medicalscience.science|access-date=1 December 2013|newspaper=[[The Observer]]|date=13 July 2002|quote="Cryonics, which began in the Sixties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the [[future]] to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Grim Reaper."}}</ref><ref name="guardian keep cool">{{cite news|title=Dying is the last thing anyone wants to do – so keep cool and carry on|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/11/cryonics-booms-in-us|access-date=21 February 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=10 October 2015}}</ref> Cryonics is regarded with [[skepticism]] within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a [[pseudoscience]],<ref name=jk>{{cite news |title=Mainstream science is frosty over keeping the dead on ice |author=Steinbeck RL |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=29 September 2002 |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2002-09-29-0209290429-story.html}}</ref> and has been characterized as [[quackery]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-ethics/2016/11/18/justice-cryogenically-delayed-is-justice-denied/|title=Justice Cryogenically Delayed is Justice Denied?|last=Hoppe|first=Nils|date=2016-11-18|website=BMJ Journal of Medical Ethics blog|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-06-24|quote=The mere fact that we feel the promises made by the cryopreservation industry amount to a most grievous form of quackery ...}}; {{Cite news|title=Could He Live to 2150?|last1=Zimmer|first1=Carl|date=October 2007|work=Best Life|quote=Quack watch: The following controversial treatments are all being touted as antiaging miracle cures.|last2=Hamilton|first2=David}}; {{cite book|author=Harold Schechter|title=The Whole Death Catalog: A Lively Guide to the Bitter End|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fpozwi3nyA8C&pg=PA206|date=2 June 2009|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-345-51251-2|page=206}}; {{Cite web|url=https://thebaffler.com/salvos/everybody-freeze-pein|title=Everybody Freeze!|last=Pein|first=Corey|date=2016-03-08|website=The Baffler|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-24}}; {{Cite news|url=https://harpers.org/archive/2014/12/heads-will-roll/3/|title=Heads Will Roll|last=Chiasson|first=Dan|date=December 2014|work=Harper's Magazine|access-date=2019-06-24|issn=0017-789X}}; {{Cite web|url=https://www.salon.com/2012/06/24/the_mansion_of_happiness_matters_of_life_and_death/|title="The Mansion of Happiness": Matters of life and death|last=Miller|first=Laura|date=2012-06-24|website=Salon|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24}}; {{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/books/review/strange-bodies-by-marcel-theroux.html|title=Sparks of Life|last=Almond|first=Steve|date=2014-02-28|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-06-24|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}; {{Cite book|title=The Skeptics Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions|last=Carroll|first=Robert Todd|publisher=Wiley|year=2003|isbn=0471272426|quote=A business based on little more than hope for developments that can be imagined by science is quackery. There is little reason to believe that the promises of cryonics will ever be fulfilled.}}</ref>

=== Digital ghosts ===
In his 1988 book ''Mind Children'', [[roboticist]] [[Hans Moravec]] proposed that a future [[supercomputer]] might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, such can include information in the form of memories, filmstrips, social media interactions,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Galvão |first1=Vinicius Ferreira |last2=Maciel |first2=Cristiano |last3=Pereira |first3=Vinicius Carvalho |last4=Garcia |first4=Ana Cristina Bicharra |last5=Pereira |first5=Roberto |last6=Viterbo |first6=José |title=Proceedings of the XX Brazilian Symposium on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Posthumous data at stake: An Overview of Digital Immortality Issues |date=18 October 2021 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1145/3472301.3484358 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=9781450386173 |s2cid=238585039 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galvão |first1=Vinícius Ferreira |last2=Maciel |first2=Cristiano |last3=Pereira |first3=Roberto |last4=Gasparini |first4=Isabela |last5=Viterbo |first5=José |last6=Bicharra Garcia |first6=Ana Cristina |title=Discussing human values in digital immortality: towards a value-oriented perspective |journal=Journal of the Brazilian Computer Society |date=26 November 2021 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=15 |doi=10.1186/s13173-021-00121-x |s2cid=244664252 |issn=1678-4804|doi-access=free }}</ref> modeled personality traits,<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6"/> personal favourite things,<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6">{{cite journal |last1=Savin-Baden |first1=Maggi |last2=Burden |first2=David |title=Digital Immortality and Virtual Humans |journal=Postdigital Science and Education |date=1 April 2019 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6 |s2cid=149797460 |language=en |issn=2524-4868|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Personal information manager|personal notes and tasks]],{{additional citation needed|date=November 2022}} [[electronic health record|medical records]], and [[genome|genetic information]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mindchildrenfutu00mora|url-access=registration|title=Mind Children|publisher=Harvard University Press|access-date=6 July 2015|isbn=9780674576186|last1=Moravec|first1=Hans|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://futurisms.thenewatlantis.com/2010/02/resurrecting-dead.html|title=Resurrecting the Dead - Futurisms - The New Atlantis|work=Futurisms - The New Atlantis|date=6 February 2010 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>

[[Ray Kurzweil]], American inventor and [[futurist]], believes that when his concept of [[Technological singularity|singularity]] comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.singularityweblog.com/ray-kurzweil-singularity/|title=Ray Kurzweil on the Singularity and Bringing Back the Dead|author=Socrates|date=18 July 2012|work=Singularity Weblog|access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> Such is one approach in the concept of [[digital immortality]], which could be described as resurrecting deceased as "digital [[ghost]]s"<ref>{{cite web |title=Ghostbots, the Quest for Digital Immortality and the Law |url=https://www.jurist.org/commentary/2022/01/mauricio-figueroa-ghostbots-digital-immortality-law/ |website=www.jurist.org |date=18 January 2022 |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinhart |first1=Eric |title=Survival as a Digital Ghost |journal=Minds and Machines |date=1 October 2007 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=261–271 |doi=10.1007/s11023-007-9068-0 |s2cid=2741620 |language=en |issn=1572-8641|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/STESAA }}</ref> or "digital avatars".<ref>{{cite news |title=Digital immortality: How your life's data means a version of you could live forever |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/10/18/139457/digital-version-after-death/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How your digital self could 'live' on after you die |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40935790 |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=BBC News |date=21 August 2017}}</ref> In the context of [[knowledge management]], "virtual persona" could "aid in knowledge capture, retention, distribution, access and use" and continue to learn.<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6"/> Issues include [[post-mortem privacy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gamba |first1=Fiorenza |title=AI, mourning and digital immortality. Some ethical questions on digital remain and post-mortem privacy |journal=Études sur la mort |date=11 October 2022 |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.3917/eslm.157.0013|s2cid=253060024 }}</ref> and potential use of personalised digital twins and associated systems by [[big data]] firms and advertisers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Truby |first1=Jon |last2=Brown |first2=Rafael |title=Human digital thought clones: the Holy Grail of artificial intelligence for big data |journal=Information & Communications Technology Law |date=4 May 2021 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=140–168 |doi=10.1080/13600834.2020.1850174 |s2cid=229442428 |issn=1360-0834|doi-access=free |hdl=10576/17266 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Related alternative approaches of digital immortality include gradually "[[Artificial neuron|replacing]]" neurons in the brain with advanced medical technology (such as [[nanobiotechnology]]) as a form of [[mind uploading]] (see also: [[wetware computer]]).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Turchin |first1=Alexey |title=Multilevel Strategy for Immortality: Plan A ? Fighting Aging, Plan B ? Cryonics, Plan C ? Digital Immortality, Plan D ? Big World Immortality |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TURMSF-2 |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>

=== De-extinction ===
[[De-extinction]], enabling an organism that either resembles or is an [[extinct species]], is also known as "resurrection biology" and often described as working on "resurrecting" dead species.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Issam |title=Forget mammoths, study shows how to resurrect Christmas Island rats |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-03-mammoths-resurrect-christmas-island-rats.html |access-date=19 April 2022 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=De-extinction: scientists are planning the multimillion-dollar resurrection of the Tasmanian tiger |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/aug/16/de-extinction-scientists-are-planning-the-multimillion-dollar-resurrection-of-the-tasmanian-tiger |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=16 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bringing extinct species back from the dead could hurt—not help—conservation efforts |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/bringing-extinct-species-back-dead-could-hurt-not-help-conservation-efforts |publisher=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |access-date=2 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Medical resuscitation ===
Modern medicine can, in some cases, revive patients who "died" by some definitions of [[death]], or were declared dead. However, under most definitions of death, this would mean that the patient wasn't truly dead.

Most advanced versions of such capabilities may include a method/system under development reported in 2019, 'BrainEx', that could partially revive (pig) brains hours after death (to the degree of brain circulation and cellular functions).<ref name="bbc62406350"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vrselja |first1=Zvonimir |last2=Daniele |first2=Stefano G. |last3=Silbereis |first3=John |last4=Talpo |first4=Francesca |last5=Morozov |first5=Yury M. |last6=Sousa |first6=André M. M. |last7=Tanaka |first7=Brian S. |last8=Skarica |first8=Mario |last9=Pletikos |first9=Mihovil |last10=Kaur |first10=Navjot |last11=Zhuang |first11=Zhen W. |last12=Liu |first12=Zhao |last13=Alkawadri |first13=Rafeed |last14=Sinusas |first14=Albert J. |last15=Latham |first15=Stephen R. |last16=Waxman |first16=Stephen G. |last17=Sestan |first17=Nenad |title=Restoration of brain circulation and cellular functions hours post-mortem |journal=Nature |date=April 2019 |volume=568 |issue=7752 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1099-1 |pmid=30996318 |pmc=6844189 |bibcode=2019Natur.568..336V |language=en |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It showed that "the process of cell death is a gradual, stepwise process and that some of those processes can be either postponed, preserved or even reversed".<ref>{{cite news |title=Wild ideas in science: Death is reversible |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/wild-ideas-death-is-reversible/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref> A similar [[Machine perfusion|organ perfusion system]] under development, 'OrganEx', can restore – i.e. on the cellular level – multiple vital (pig) organs one hour after death (during which the body had prolonged warm [[ischaemia]]).<ref name="bbc62406350">{{cite news |title=Pig organs partially revived hour after death |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-62406350 |access-date=15 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andrijevic |first1=David |last2=Vrselja |first2=Zvonimir |last3=Lysyy |first3=Taras |last4=Zhang |first4=Shupei |last5=Skarica |first5=Mario |last6=Spajic |first6=Ana |last7=Dellal |first7=David |last8=Thorn |first8=Stephanie L. |last9=Duckrow |first9=Robert B. |last10=Ma |first10=Shaojie |last11=Duy |first11=Phan Q. |last12=Isiktas |first12=Atagun U. |last13=Liang |first13=Dan |last14=Li |first14=Mingfeng |last15=Kim |first15=Suel-Kee |last16=Daniele |first16=Stefano G. |last17=Banu |first17=Khadija |last18=Perincheri |first18=Sudhir |last19=Menon |first19=Madhav C. |last20=Huttner |first20=Anita |last21=Sheth |first21=Kevin N. |last22=Gobeske |first22=Kevin T. |last23=Tietjen |first23=Gregory T. |last24=Zaveri |first24=Hitten P. |last25=Latham |first25=Stephen R. |last26=Sinusas |first26=Albert J. |last27=Sestan |first27=Nenad |title=Cellular recovery after prolonged warm ischaemia of the whole body |journal=Nature |date=August 2022 |volume=608 |issue=7922 |pages=405–412 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05016-1 |pmid=35922506 |pmc=9518831 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..405A |s2cid=251316299 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362458029 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It could be used to preserve [[donor organ]]s but may also be developed to be useful for revival in medical emergencies by buying "more time for doctors to treat people whose bodies were starved of oxygen, such as those who died from drowning or heart attacks".<ref name="bbc62406350"/>

There is research into what happens during<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vicente |first1=Raul |last2=Rizzuto |first2=Michael |last3=Sarica |first3=Can |last4=Yamamoto |first4=Kazuaki |last5=Sadr |first5=Mohammed |last6=Khajuria |first6=Tarun |last7=Fatehi |first7=Mostafa |last8=Moien-Afshari |first8=Farzad |last9=Haw |first9=Charles S. |last10=Llinas |first10=Rodolfo R. |last11=Lozano |first11=Andres M. |last12=Neimat |first12=Joseph S. |last13=Zemmar |first13=Ajmal |title=Enhanced Interplay of Neuronal Coherence and Coupling in the Dying Human Brain |journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience |date=2022 |volume=14 |page=813531 |doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.813531 |pmid=35273490 |pmc=8902637 |issn=1663-4365|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weisberger |first1=Mindy |title=Are 'Flatliners' Really Conscious After Death? |url=https://www.livescience.com/60593-flatliners-movie-death-resuscitation.html |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=livescience.com |date=4 October 2017 |language=en}}</ref> and after death as well as how and to what extent patients could be revived by the use of science and technology. For example, one study showed that in the hours after humans die, "certain cells [[Brain death#Medical criteria|in the human brain]] are still active".<ref>{{cite news |title='Zombie' genes? Research shows some genes come to life in the brain after death {{!}} UIC Today |url=https://today.uic.edu/zombie-genes-research-shows-some-genes-come-to-life-in-the-brain-after-death |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=today.uic.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dachet |first1=Fabien |last2=Brown |first2=James B. |last3=Valyi-Nagy |first3=Tibor |last4=Narayan |first4=Kunwar D. |last5=Serafini |first5=Anna |last6=Boley |first6=Nathan |last7=Gingeras |first7=Thomas R. |last8=Celniker |first8=Susan E. |last9=Mohapatra |first9=Gayatry |last10=Loeb |first10=Jeffrey A. |title=Selective time-dependent changes in activity and cell-specific gene expression in human postmortem brain |journal=Scientific Reports |date=23 March 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6078 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-85801-6 |pmid=33758256 |pmc=7988150 |bibcode=2021NatSR..11.6078D |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> However, it is thought that at least ''without'' any life-support-like systems, death is permanent and irreversible after several hours – not days – even in cases when revival was still possible shortly after death.{{additional citation needed|date=November 2022}}

A 2010 study notes that physicians are determining death "test only for the permanent cessation of circulation and respiration because they know that irreversible cessation follows rapidly and inevitably once circulation no longer will restore itself spontaneously and will not be restored medically".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernat |first1=J. L. |title=How the Distinction between "Irreversible" and "Permanent" Illuminates Circulatory-Respiratory Death Determination |journal=Journal of Medicine and Philosophy |date=1 June 2010 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=242–255 |doi=10.1093/jmp/jhq018|pmid=20439357 }}</ref> Development of advanced live support measures "including [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR) and [[positive pressure ventilation]] (PPV)" brought the interdependence of cessation of brain function and loss of respiration and circulation and "the traditional definition of death into question"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spears |first1=William |last2=Mian |first2=Asim |last3=Greer |first3=David |title=Brain death: a clinical overview |journal=Journal of Intensive Care |date=16 March 2022 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=16 |doi=10.1186/s40560-022-00609-4 |pmid=35292111 |pmc=8925092 |issn=2052-0492 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and further developments upend more "definitions of mortality".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Koch |first1=Christof |title=Is Death Reversible? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-death-reversible/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=Scientific American |date=October 1, 2019}}</ref>

=== Hypothetical speculations without existing technologies ===<!--in fiction and/or without underlying existing/developed technology-->
[[Russian cosmist]] [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov]] advocated resurrection of the dead using scientific methods. Fedorov tried to plan specific actions for scientific research of the possibility of restoring life and making it infinite. His first project is connected with collecting and synthesizing decayed remains of dead based on "knowledge and control over all atoms and molecules of the world". The second method described by Fedorov is genetic-hereditary. The revival could be done successively in the ancestral line: sons and daughters restore their fathers and mothers, they in turn restore their parents and so on. This means restoring the ancestors using the hereditary information that they passed on to their children. Using this genetic method it is only possible to create a [[identical twin|genetic twin]] of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.<ref>Nikolai Berdyaev, The Religion of Resusciative Resurrection. "The Philosophy of the Common Task of N. F. Fedorov.</ref>

In his 1994 book ''The Physics of Immortality'', American [[physicist]] [[Frank J. Tipler]], an expert on the [[general theory of relativity]],  presented his [[Omega Point (Tipler)|Omega Point Theory]] which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the [[cosmos]].  He posits that humans will evolve into [[robots]] which will turn the entire [[cosmos]] into a [[supercomputer]] which will, shortly before the [[Big Crunch]], perform the resurrection within its [[cyberspace]], reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the [[supercomputer]] from the past [[light cone]] of the cosmos) as [[Avatar (computing)|avatars]] within its [[metaverse]].<ref>Tipler ''The Physics of Immortality''. 56-page excerpt available [http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385467995 here.]</ref>

[[David Deutsch]], British [[physicist]] and pioneer in the field of [[quantum computing]], formerly agreed with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computers<ref>David Deutsch (1997). "The Ends of the Universe". The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes—and Its Implications. London: Penguin Press. {{ISBN|0-7139-9061-9}}.</ref> but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.

Italian [[physicist]] and [[computer scientist]] [[Giulio Prisco]] presented the idea of "quantum archaeology",  "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies]] | title=Technological Resurrection Concepts From Fedorov to Quantum Archeology | url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/prisco20151011 | access-date=December 10, 2015 | date=October 11, 2015 |author= Giulio Prisco}} {{cite web|url=http://giulioprisco.blogspot.fr/2011/12/quantum-archaeology.html|title=Quantum Archaeology |author=Giulio Prisco | access-date=6 July 2015 | date=December 16, 2011}}</ref>

In their [[science fiction]] [[novel]] ''[[The Light of Other Days]]'', [[Arthur C. Clarke|Sir Arthur Clarke]] and [[Stephen Baxter (author)|Stephen Baxter]] imagine a future civilization resurrecting the dead of past ages by reaching into the past, through micro [[wormholes]] and with [[Nanorobotics|nanorobots]], to download full snapshots of [[brain]] states and memories.<ref>Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible, Millennium [i.e., Second] Edition, Victor Gollancz – An imprint of Orion Books Ltd., 1999, p. 118: "the novel that Stephen Baxter has now written from my synopsis — The Light of Other Days."</ref>

=== In religions ===
Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the [[Terasem Movement]] consider themselves [[Transhumanism#Spirituality|transreligions]] and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely [[Life extension|extend the human lifespan]].<ref>{{cite news| newspaper=International Business Times | title=Virtual reality heaven: How technology is redefining death and the afterlife | url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/virtual-reality-heaven-how-technology-redefining-afterlife-1532429 | author=Anthony Cuthbertson | access-date=December 10, 2015 | date=December 9, 2015}}</ref>