Protestantism

==History==
{{Main|History of Protestantism}}

===Pre-Reformation===
{{See also|Proto-Protestantism|Girolamo Savonarola}}
[[File:lollardmap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Spread of [[Lollardy]] in [[Medieval England]] and [[Medieval Scotland]]]]
[[File:Muttich, Kamil Vladislav - Mistr Jan Hus na hranici v Kostnici 1415.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The execution of [[Jan Hus]] in 1415]]
[[File:Girolamo-Savonarola----w.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Girolamo Savonarola]]]]
[[File:Portret van Johan Wessel Gansfort, RP-P-1906-1520.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Wessel Gansfort]]]]
One of the earliest persons to be praised as a Protestant forerunner is [[Jovinian]], who lived in the fourth century AD. He attacked [[monasticism]], [[Asceticism|ascetism]] and believed that a saved believer can never be overcome by Satan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311–600 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.ccel.org|archive-date=21 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221094001/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.vii.xix.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 9th century, the theologian [[Gottschalk of Orbais]] was condemned for heresy by the Catholic Church. Gottschalk believed that the salvation of Jesus was limited and that his redemption was only for the elect.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gottschalk Of Orbais {{!}} Roman Catholic theologian {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121161752/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gottschalk-of-Orbais|url-status=live}}</ref> The theology of Gottschalk anticipated the Protestant reformation.<ref>{{cite web|last=caryslmbrown|date=2017-07-18|title=Reformation parallels: the case of Gottschalk of Orbais|url=https://doinghistoryinpublic.org/2017/07/18/reformation-parallels-the-case-of-gottschalk-of-orbais/|access-date=2021-10-27|website=Doing History in Public|language=en|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028215011/https://doinghistoryinpublic.org/2017/07/18/reformation-parallels-the-case-of-gottschalk-of-orbais/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lockridge|first=Kenneth R.|title=Gottschalk "Fulgentius" of Orbais|url=https://www.academia.edu/11213309|access-date=13 December 2021|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114133600/https://www.academia.edu/11213309|url-status=live}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=August 2023}} [[Ratramnus]] also defended the theology of Gottschalk and denied the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist; his writings also influenced the later Protestant reformation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ratramnus {{!}} Benedictine theologian {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ratramnus|access-date=2021-12-14|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121090330/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ratramnus|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Claudius of Turin]] in the 9th century also held Protestant ideas, such as [[Sola fide|faith alone]] and rejection of the supremacy of Peter.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Joseph|title=The History of the Church of Christ Volume 3|quote=A comment on the epistle to the Galatians, is his only work which was committed to the press. In it he every where asserts the equality of all the apostles with St. Peter. And, indeed, he always owns Jesus Christ to be the only proper head of the church. He is severe against the doctrine of human merits, and of the exaltation of traditions to a height of credibility equal to that of the divine word. He maintains that we are to be saved by faith alone; holds the fallibility of the church, exposes the futility of praying for the dead, and the sinfulness of the idolatrous practices then supported by the Roman see. Such are the sentiments found in his commentary on the epistle to the Galatians.}}</ref>

In the late 1130s, [[Arnold of Brescia]], an Italian [[canon regular]] became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on [[apostolic poverty]] gained currency among [[Arnoldists]], and later more widely among [[Waldensians]] and the [[Spiritual Franciscans]], though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, [[Peter Waldo]] founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as [[Waldensian Evangelical Church|a part of the wider Reformed tradition]].

In the 1370s, Oxford theologian and priest [[John Wycliffe]]—later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation"—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, [[Wycliffe's Bible|translated the Bible]] into [[vernacular]] [[English language|English]], and preached anticlerical and biblically centred reforms. His rejection of a real divine presence in the elements of the Eucharist foreshadowed Huldrych Zwingli's similar ideas in the 16th century. Wycliffe's admirers came to be known as "[[Lollardy|Lollards]]".<ref>{{Cite book |author=MacCulloch, Diarmaid |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1303898228 |title=A history of Christianity : the first three thousand years |oclc=1303898228 |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831153624/http://worldcat.org/title/1303898228 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, [[Jan Hus]]—a Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the [[Hussite]] movement. He strongly advocated his reformist [[Bohemia]]n religious denomination. He was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] and [[burned at the stake]] in [[Konstanz|Constance]], [[Bishopric of Constance]], in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the [[Pope]].

Later theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. [[Utraquism|Utraquists]] maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the [[Taborites]], who opposed the Utraquists in the [[Battle of Lipany]] during the [[Hussite Wars]]. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in [[Bohemia]] included [[Adamites]], [[Orebites]], [[Sirotci|Orphans]], and Praguers.

The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arose as the [[Thirty Years' War]] reached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor's armies.

In the 14th century, a German mysticist group called the [[Friends of God|Gottesfreunde]] criticized the Catholic church and its corruption. Many of their leaders were executed for attacking the Catholic church and they believed that God's judgement would soon come upon the church. The Gottesfreunde were a democratic lay movement and forerunner of the Reformation and put heavy stress of holiness and piety,<ref>{{cite web|title=Friends of God {{!}} religious group {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Friends-of-God|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125125434/https://www.britannica.com/event/Friends-of-God|url-status=live}}</ref>

Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar [[Girolamo Savonarola]] was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517 |via=Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.v.html|access-date=2021-11-17|website=ccel.org|archive-date=17 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117065912/https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.v.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some of Hus' followers founded the [[Unitas Fratrum]]—"Unity of the Brethren"—which was renewed under the leadership of [[Zinzendorf|Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf]] in [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]], in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the [[Thirty Years' War]] and the [[Counter-Reformation#Politics|Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation")]]. Today, it is usually referred to in English as the [[Moravian Church]] and in German as the [[Moravian Church|Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine]].

In the 15th century, three German theologians anticipated the reformation: [[Wessel Gansfort]], [[Johann Ruchrat von Wesel|Johann Ruchat von Wesel]], and [[Johannes von Goch]]. They held ideas such as [[predestination]], [[sola scriptura]], and the [[church invisible]], and denied the Roman Catholic view on justification and the authority of the Pope, also questioning [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294–1517 |via= Christian Classics Ethereal Library|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.iv.html|access-date=2021-11-14|website=ccel.org|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114121627/https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.x.iv.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Wessel Gansfort also denied [[transubstantiation]] and anticipated the Lutheran view of justification by faith alone.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016|title=The forms of communication employed by the Protestant Reformers and especially Luther and Calvin|url=http://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_25_vol_98_2017.pdf|journal=Pharos Journal of Theology|volume=98|quote=John of Wessel was one member in the group who attacked indulgences (Reddy 2004:115). The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the teaching of John of Wessel (Kuiper 1982:151). He rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation where it is believed when the priest pronounces the sacraments then the wine and bread is turned into the real body and blood of Christ|access-date=14 December 2021|archive-date=5 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105230957/http://www.pharosjot.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/article_25_vol_98_2017.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Reformation proper===
{{Main|Protestant Reformation}}
[[File:HolyRomanEmpire 1618.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Distribution of Protestantism and [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] in Central Europe on the eve of the [[Thirty Years' War]] in 1618]]
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|caption1=[[Henry VIII of England]], known for his role in the [[English Reformation|separation]] of the [[Church of England]] from the [[Catholic Church]]
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|caption2=[[John Knox]], who led the [[Reformation in Scotland]], founding [[Presbyterianism]]}}
{{Reformation}}
The [[Protestant Reformation]] began as an attempt to reform the [[Catholic Church]].

On 31 October 1517, known as [[Halloween|All Hallows' Eve]], [[Martin Luther]] allegedly nailed his [[Ninety-five Theses]], also known as the Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, on the door of the [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]] in [[Wittenberg]], Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling of [[indulgence]]s. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of [[Purgatory#Protestantism|purgatory]], [[Particular judgment#Reformation concepts|particular judgment]], and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to [[Virgin Mary]], the intercession of and devotion to the saints, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and [[excommunication]], the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.<ref name=Schofield122>Schofield ''Martin Luther'' p. 122</ref>

The [[Reformation]] was a triumph of literacy and the new [[printing press]] invented by [[Johannes Gutenberg]].<ref name=Cameron>Cameron ''European Reformation''{{page needed|date=March 2015}}</ref>{{efn|In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.<ref name=Pettegree543>Pettegree ''Reformation World'' p. 543</ref>}} Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.<ref name=Edwards>Edwards ''Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther''{{page needed|date=March 2015}}</ref>{{efn|In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.<ref name=PettegreeHall786>Pettegree and Hall "Reformation and the Book ''Historical Journal'' p. 786</ref>}}

Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the [[Bern]] reformer [[William Farel]], Calvin was asked to use the organizational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city of [[Geneva]]. His ''Ordinances of 1541'' involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the city council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed [[Huguenots]] (a term of somewhat inexplicable origin). Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the [[French Wars of Religion]]. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of [[Henry II of France]] in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of August 1572, when the Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when [[Henry IV of France]] issued the [[Edict of Nantes]], promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official [[state religion]], and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV's]] [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, [[Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg]] declared the [[Edict of Potsdam]], giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century, many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the [[Cévennes]] region.

Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the [[Swiss Confederation]] led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince [[Philip of Hesse]] saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the [[Colloquy of Marburg]], which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.

In 1534, [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] put an end to all papal jurisdiction in [[England]], after the Pope failed to [[annul]] his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] (due to political considerations involving the Holy Roman Emperor);<ref>William P. Haugaard "The History of Anglicanism I" in ''The Study of Anglicanism'' Stephen Sykes and John Booty (eds) (SPCK 1987) pp. 6–7</ref> this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (''{{lang|la|via media}}'') between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the [[English Reformation]] came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as ''the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England''. Between 1535 and 1540, under [[Thomas Cromwell]], the policy known as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] was put into effect. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of [[Elizabeth I]]. The [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]] largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century.

The success of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") on the Continent and the growth of a [[Puritans|Puritan party]] dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the [[Elizabethan Age]]. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England whose proponents desired for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially that of Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as [[dissenters]] and [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformists]], eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.

The [[Scottish Reformation]] of 1560 decisively shaped the [[Church of Scotland]].<ref>Article 1, of the [[Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland]] 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</ref> The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The [[Scottish Reformation Parliament]] of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the [[Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560]], forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent [[Mary of Guise]], who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent [[Mary, Queen of Scots|daughter]].

Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included [[Jacobus Arminius]], [[Theodore Beza]], [[Martin Bucer]], [[Andreas von Carlstadt]], [[Heinrich Bullinger]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier]], [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[William Farel]], [[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Laurentius Petri]], [[Olaus Petri]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]], [[Menno Simons]], [[Louis de Berquin]], [[Primož Trubar]] and [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]].

In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[German Peasants' War]] of 1524–25 swept through the [[Bavaria]]n, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities. After the [[Eighty Years' War]] in the [[Low Countries]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]], the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the [[Thirty Years' War]] between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25% and 40% of its population.<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 History of Europe – Demographics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723052625/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 |date=23 July 2013 }}". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> The main tenets of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
* All parties would now recognize the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'')
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
* The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull ''{{lang|la|Zelo Domus Dei}}''. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<ref name=ODCCWestphalia>Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''</ref>

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 | caption1 = Peak of the [[Reformation]] and beginning of the Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1545–1620)

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 | caption2 = End of the Reformation and Counterreformation ("Catholic Reformation") (1648)

 | footer = Religious situation in Europe, late 16th and early to mid-17th century}}

===Post-Reformation===
{{See also|Great Awakening|Azusa Street Revival}}
[[File:1839-meth.jpg|thumb|An 1839 [[Methodism|Methodist]] camp meeting during the [[Second Great Awakening]] in the U.S.]]

The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history.

The [[First Great Awakening]] was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and [[British America]], especially the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on [[Protestantism in the United States|American Protestantism]]. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.<ref>Thomas S. Kidd, ''The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America'' (2009)</ref>

The [[Second Great Awakening]] began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among [[Baptist]] and [[Methodism|Methodist]] congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, [[deism]], and [[rationalism]], although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.<ref>[[Nancy Cott]], "Young Women in the Great Awakening in New England", Feminist Studies 3, no. 1/2 (Autumn 1975): 15.</ref> It enrolled millions of new members in existing [[evangelical]] denominations and led to the formation of new denominations.

The [[Third Great Awakening]] refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in [[American history]] and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.<ref>William G. McLoughlin, ''Revivals Awakenings and Reform'' (1980)</ref> It affected [[pietistic]] Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.<ref>[[Mark A. Noll]], ''A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada'' (1992) pp. 286–310</ref> It gathered strength from the [[postmillennial]] belief that the [[Second Coming]] of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the [[Social Gospel]] Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the [[Holiness movement|Holiness]], [[Church of the Nazarene|Nazarene]], and [[Christian Science]] movements.<ref name=Fogel>Robert William Fogel, ''The Fourth Great Awakening and the Future of Egalitarianism'' (2000)</ref>

The [[Fourth Great Awakening]] was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, [[Robert Fogel]]—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following [[World War II]]. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.<ref>Robert William Fogel (2000), ''The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism''; see the review by Randall Balmer, ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2002 33(2): 322–325</ref>

In 1814, [[Réveil|Le Réveil]] swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.

In 1904, a [[1904–1905 Welsh revival|Protestant revival in Wales]] had a tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibbard |first1=Noel |title=Fire on the Altar: A History and Evaluation of the 1904–05 Welsh Revival |date=2005 |publisher=[[Bryntirion Press]] |location=Bridgend |isbn=978-1850492115}}</ref>

A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal movement]]. Sprung from Methodist and [[John Wesley|Wesleyan]] roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on [[Azusa Street]] in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the [[Charismatic movement]] within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in [[Western Christianity]].

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical wing]] of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the [[Mainline Protestant|mainstream liberal churches]]. In the post–[[World War I]] era, [[Liberal Christianity]] was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–[[World War II]] era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures.

In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards [[secularism]]. The [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. 
Some scholars debate the link between Protestantism and the rise of secularism, and take as argument the wide-ranging freedom in Protestant-majority countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/geneveith/2012/03/has-lutheranism-caused-secularism/|title=Has Lutheranism caused secularism?|last=Cranach|date=22 March 2012|access-date=28 June 2015|archive-date=30 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630182929/http://www.patheos.com/blogs/geneveith/2012/03/has-lutheranism-caused-secularism/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the sole example of France demonstrates that even in Catholic-majority countries, the overwhelming impact of the Enlightenment has brought even stronger secularism and freedom of thought five centuries later. It is more reliable to consider that the Reformation influenced the critical thinkers of the subsequent centuries, providing intellectual, religious, and philosophical ground on which future philosophers could extend their criticism of the church, of its theological, philosophical, social assumptions of the time. One should be reminded though that initial philosophers of the Enlightenment were defending a Christian conception of the world, but it was developed together with a fierce and decisive criticism of the Church, its politics, its ethics, its worldview, its scientific and cultural assumptions, leading to the devaluation of all forms of institutionalized Christianity, which extended over the centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cairn.info/pouvoir-et-religion-en-europe--9782200272135-page-209.htm |title=Chapitre 6 – Les Lumières, ou la sécularisation de l'État |publisher=Cairn.info |date=2016|isbn=978-2200272135 |accessdate=2022-09-22}}</ref>