Panama Canal

==Issues leading to expansion==
{{Panorama
| image = File:Panama canal panoramic view from the top of Ancon hill.jpg
| height = 145
| alt = Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal.
| caption = Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal. Left: Pacific Ocean and Puente de las Americas (Bridge of Pan-American Highway); far right: Miraflores locks.
}}

===Efficiency and maintenance===

Opponents to the 1977 [[Torrijos-Carter Treaties]] feared that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S. withdrawal from the Panama Canal Zone; however, this has been proven not to be the case. In 2004, it was reported that canal operations, capitalizing on practices developed during the American administration, were improving under Panamanian control.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/panama.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913044023/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/panama.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-09-13 |title=Panama Rises |journal=Smithsonian Magazine |date=March 2004 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |first=Bob |last=Cullen |access-date=2012-04-30 }}</ref> Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency; in the first decade of the 2000s, it ranged between 20 and 30 hours, according to the ACP. The accident rate has also not changed appreciably in the past decade, varying between 10 and 30 accidents each year from about 14,000 total annual transits.<ref name=annualreport2005>{{cite web |url=http://www.pancanal.com/common/general/reports/informe-anual-2005.pdf |title=ACP 2005 Annual Report |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |year=2005 |access-date=2010-07-09 |archive-date=May 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506181207/http://www.pancanal.com/common/general/reports/informe-anual-2005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=metrics2008>{{Cite news |url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2008/10/24/pr300.html |title=News—PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2008 Metrics |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |date=2008-10-24 |access-date=2010-07-09 |archive-date=May 7, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507150245/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2008/10/24/pr300.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=metrics2009>{{Cite news |url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2009/10/30/pr366.html |title=News—PanCanal.com; Panama Canal Authority Announces Fiscal Year 2009 Metrics |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |date=2009-10-30 |access-date=2010-07-09 |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611095934/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/pr/press-releases/2009/10/30/pr366.html |url-status=live }}</ref> An official accident is one in which a formal investigation is requested and conducted.

Increasing volumes of imports from Asia, which previously landed on US West Coast ports, are now passing through the canal to the American East Coast.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.colliers.com/Content/Attachments/Corporate/Services/NewYorkTimes112204.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307191412/http://colliers.com/Content/Attachments/Corporate/Services/NewYorkTimes112204.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-03-07|title=New York Port Hums Again, With Asian Trade|first=Eric|last=Lipton|work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2004-11-22}}</ref> The total number of ocean-going transits increased from 11,725 in 2003 to 13,233 in 2007, falling to 12,855 in 2009. (The canal's fiscal year runs from October through September.)<ref name="annualreport2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/reporte-anual/2009/pdf/InformePDFingles.pdf|title=ACP 2009 Annual Report|publisher=Panama Canal Authority|year=2009|access-date=2010-07-09|archive-date=November 3, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103054620/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/general/reporte-anual/2009/pdf/InformePDFingles.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This has been coupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of Panamax vessels passing through the canal, so that the total tonnage carried rose from 227.9 million [[tonnage|PC/UMS tons]] in fiscal year 1999 to a then record high of 312.9 million tons in 2007, and falling to 299.1 million tons in 2009.<ref name="acptraffic" /><ref name="annualreport2009" /> Tonnage for fiscal 2013, 2014 and 2015 was 320.6, 326.8 and 340.8 million PC/UMS tons carried on 13,660, 13,481 and 13,874 transits respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/transit-stats/2015/Table01.pdf|title=Panama Canal Traffic—Fiscal Years 2013 through 2015 |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719152021/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/op/transit-stats/2015/Table01.pdf|archive-date=2016-07-19}}</ref>

In the first decade after the transfer to Panamanian control, the [[Panama Canal Authority]] (ACP) invested nearly US$1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20 percent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/panama.canal/stories/operation/|title=Transfer heavy on symbolism, light on change|first=Steve|last=Nettleton |publisher=CNN Interactive|year=2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218155312/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/panama.canal/stories/operation/|archive-date=December 18, 2008}}</ref> The ACP cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Culebra Cut to reduce restrictions on passing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances to the canal. This is supported by new equipment, such as a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the [[Tugboat|tug boat]] fleet by 20 percent. In addition, improvements have been made to the canal's operating machinery, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than {{convert|16|km|0|abbr=on}} of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal.<ref>{{cite web|title=9 Facts about the Panama Canal Expansion – Infographic |url=http://www.mercatrade.com/blog/9-facts-about-the-panama-canal-expansion/ |publisher=Mercatrade |access-date=28 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020083517/http://www.mercatrade.com/blog/9-facts-about-the-panama-canal-expansion/ |archive-date=20 October 2014 }}</ref>

In December 2010, record-breaking rains caused a 17-hour closure of the canal; this was the first closure since the [[U.S. invasion of Panama]] in 1989.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11953800|access-date=2010-12-13|title=Panama Canal reopens after temporary closure|work=BBC News|date=9 December 2010|archive-date=October 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017113304/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11953800|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5izSSaRRPlqlKrEgImAAMgZtqhsdw?docId=N0087151292030740345A |access-date=2010-12-12|title=The Press Association: Panama flooding displaces thousands|date=2010-12-12}}</ref> The rains also caused an access road to the Centenario Bridge to collapse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://laestrella.com.pa/mensual/2010/12/12/contenido/18225705.asp |access-date=2010-12-13 |title=NOTICIAS PANAMÁ—PERIÓDICO LA ESTRELLA ONLINE: Gobierno abrirá parcialmente Puente Centenario; Corredores serán gratis [Al Minuto] |date=2010-12-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216063033/http://www.laestrella.com.pa/mensual/2010/12/12/contenido/18225705.asp |archive-date=2010-12-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digtriad.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=151684|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501024710/http://www.digtriad.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=151684|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-05-01|access-date=2012-07-08|title=Rain Causes Panama Canal Bridge To Collapse|publisher=digtriad.com|date=2010-12-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cri.cn/6966/2010/12/11/2021s609648.htm|access-date=2010-12-13|title=Entrance to Panama Canal Bridge Closed due to Rain Damage|date=2010-12-13|archive-date=December 15, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215200209/http://english.cri.cn/6966/2010/12/11/2021s609648.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsroompanama.com/panama/2073-aftermath-of-panama-flooding-hits-transport-and-finances-rain-continues.html |access-date=2010-12-13 |title=Aftermath of Panama flooding hits transport and finances—rain continues |date=2010-12-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216060538/http://www.newsroompanama.com/panama/2073-aftermath-of-panama-flooding-hits-transport-and-finances-rain-continues.html |archive-date=2010-12-16 }}</ref>

===Capacity===
The canal handles more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year;<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.czimages.com/CZMemories/thirdlocks/tlpage3.htm |title=The Land Divided—A History of the Panama Canal and other Isthmian Canal Projects |first=Gerstle |last=Mack |year=1944 |access-date=January 7, 2006 |archive-date=May 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501112749/http://www.czimages.com/CZMemories/thirdlocks/tlpage3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> as noted above, canal traffic in 2015 reached 340.8 million tons of shipping.

To improve capacity, a number of improvements have been made to maximize the use of the locking system:<ref name="3rdLockProposal">
{{cite web |url=http://www.acp.gob.pa/eng/plan/documentos/propuesta/acp-expansion-proposal.pdf |title=Proposal for the Expansion of the Panama Canal |date=24 April 2006 |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721055325/http://www.acp.gob.pa/eng/plan/documentos/propuesta/acp-expansion-proposal.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 |page=45}}
</ref>
* Implementation of an enhanced locks lighting system;
* Construction of two tie-up stations in Culebra Cut;
* Widening Culebra Cut from {{convert|192|to|218|m|ft|sp=us}};
* Improvements to the tugboat fleet;
* Implementation of the carousel lockage system in Gatun locks;
* Development of an improved vessel scheduling system;
* Deepening of Gatun Lake navigational channels from {{convert|10.4|to|11.3|m|ft|sp=us}} PLD;
* Modification of all locks structures to allow an additional draft of about {{convert|1|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}};
* Deepening of the Pacific and Atlantic entrances;
* Construction of a new spillway in Gatun, for flood control.
These improvements enlarged the capacity from 300 million PCUMS (2008) to 340 PCUMS (2012). These improvements were started before the new locks project, and are complementary to it.

===Competition===
[[File:Panama_canal_lock_sizes.png|upright=1.5|thumb|right|Maximum ship sizes for the Panama and Suez canals<ref>{{cite web |title=Panama Canal expansion will allow transit of larger ships with greater volumes |date=September 17, 2014 |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=18011 |work=Today in Energy |publisher=[[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] |access-date=2019-04-25 |archive-date=April 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425190436/https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php%3Fid%3D18011 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The canal faces increasing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls have risen as ships have become larger, some critics<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_13/issue_06/business_03.html |title=Shipping industry complains about PanCanal toll hikes |first=Eric |last=Jackson |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418214654/http://www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_13/issue_06/business_03.html |archive-date=2010-04-18 }}</ref> have suggested that the Suez Canal is now a viable alternative for cargo between Asia and the US East Coast.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-11/maersk-line-to-dump-panama-canal-for-suez-as-ships-get-bigger.html |title=Maersk Line to Dump Panama Canal for Suez as Ships Get Bigger |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=2013-05-11 |access-date=2013-12-24 |archive-date=March 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310235704/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-11/maersk-line-to-dump-panama-canal-for-suez-as-ships-get-bigger.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Panama Canal, however, continues to serve more than 144 of the world's trade routes and the majority of canal traffic comes from the "all-water route" from Asia to the US East and Gulf Coasts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft Word - Panama_Canal_Phase_I_Report_-_20Nov2013.docx |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-TD11-PURL-gpo49499/pdf/GOVPUB-TD11-PURL-gpo49499.pdf}}</ref>

An alternative route through [[Nicaragua]] and [[Lake Nicaragua]] has been proposed. On June 15, 2013, Nicaragua awarded the Hong Kong-based [[HKND Group]] a 50-year concession to develop a [[Nicaragua Canal|canal through the country]].<ref>{{cite news|last=De Cordoba|first=Jose|title=Nicaragua Revives Its Canal Dream|url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323734304578543432234604100|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=June 13, 2013|access-date=January 10, 2022|archive-date=November 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111022158/http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323734304578543432234604100|url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2018, analysts widely viewed the project as defunct,<ref name=cancellation>{{cite news  |url=https://www.elfinancierocr.com/economia-y-politica/incertidumbres-financieras-desvanecen-sueno-de/7HFF44CY3RBVVE7BR3YRKJ3XZY/story/ |title=Incertidumbres financieras desvanecen sueño de canal en Nicaragua |website=El Financiero |agency=AFP |date=21 February 2018  |language=Spanish}}</ref><ref name=Interest>{{cite news |first=Seth |last=Cropsey |date=2018-04-09 |title=China sets its sights on South America |website=The American Interest |url=https://www.the-american-interest.com/2018/04/09/china-sets-sights-south-america/ |quote=China has abandoned its attempts to construct a Nicaraguan Canal to compete with its Panamanian counterpart.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Beverly |last=Goldberg |website=Open Democracy |date=27 August 2018 |title=Is the Nicaraguan mega-canal failure good news for indigenous communities? |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/democraciaabierta/beverly-goldberg/is-nicaraguan-mega-canal-failure-good-news-for-indigenous-communi |access-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-date=August 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828071540/https://www.opendemocracy.net/democraciaabierta/beverly-goldberg/is-nicaraguan-mega-canal-failure-good-news-for-indigenous-communi |url-status=dead }}</ref> though the head of the project insisted work was on-going. In April 2018 HKND Group closed its offices, leaving no forwarding address or telephone numbers to be reached.<ref name="closing">{{Cite news |date=2018-04-26 |title=Ex-Billionaire Abandons Office in Prime Hong Kong Tower |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-26/nicaragua-canal-builder-abandons-office-in-prime-hong-kong-tower |access-date=2023-05-01}}</ref>

The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to speculation that the [[Northwest Passage]] or [[Arctic Bridge]] may become viable for commercial shipping. This route would save {{convert|9,300|km|mi|abbr=on}} on the route from Asia to Europe compared with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some traffic to that route. However, such a route is beset by unresolved territorial issues and would still hold significant problems owing to ice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jun/12/20050612-123835-3711r/ |title=Northwest Passage redux |first=Levon |last=Sevunts |work=The Washington Times |date=2005-06-12 |access-date=2009-04-20 |archive-date=December 26, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226220945/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jun/12/20050612-123835-3711r/ |url-status=live }} See also: {{cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?F=1429085&C=america |title=Conservative Leader Harper Asserts Canada's Arctic Claims |first=Michel |last=Comte |publisher=DefenceNews.com (Agence France-Presse) |date=2005-12-22 |access-date=2006-02-23 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Water issues===
[[File:Gatun locks showing the "mule" locomotives at work.jpg|thumb|Gatun locks showing the [[Panama Canal locks#Mules|"mule" locomotives]] at work]]
Gatun Lake is filled with rainwater, and the lake accumulates excess water during wet months. For the old locks, water is lost to the oceans at a rate of {{convert|101,000|m3|e6usgal acre-foot|sigfig=3|abbr=unit}} per downward lock movement.<ref name="PCA14">{{cite web |title=Physical characteristics of the waterway |url=https://pancanal.com/eng/noticiero/canal-faqs/physical/14.html |publisher=Panama Canal Authority |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011014101214fw_/http://www.pancanal.com/eng/noticiero/canal-faqs/physical/14.html |archive-date=2001-10-14 |date=2001 |quote="How much water is required to fill a lock chamber? Each lock chamber requires 101,000 cubic meters of water. An average of 52 million gallons of fresh water are used." |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ship's submerged volume is not relevant to this amount of water.

During the [[dry season]], when there is less rainfall, there is also a shortage of water in Gatun Lake.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/climate/drought-water-shortage-panama-canal.html|title=What Panama's Worst Drought Means for Its Canal's Future|last=Fountain|first=Henry|date=2019-05-17|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-01-02|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=January 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102175814/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/climate/drought-water-shortage-panama-canal.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a signatory to the 2000 [[United Nations Global Compact]] and member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, the ACP developed an environmentally and socially sustainable program for expansion, which protects the aquatic and terrestrial resources of the canal watershed. The expansion uses three water-saving basins at each new lock, diminishing water loss.  It also preserves freshwater resources along the waterway by reusing 60 percent of water from the basins in the locks in each transit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alarcón|first1=Luis F.|last2=Ashley|first2=David B.|last3=Sucre de Hanily |first3=Angelique|author4-link=Keith R. Molenaar|last4=Molenaar|first4=Keith R.|last5=Ungo|first5=Ricardo|date=October 2011|title=Risk Planning and Management for the Panama Canal Expansion Program|journal=Journal of Construction Engineering and Management |volume=137|issue=10|pages=762–771|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000317}}</ref>[[File:Mule in the Miraflores Locks.JPG|thumb|''Mule'' in the Miraflores Locks]]The mean sea level at the Pacific side is about {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} higher than that of the Atlantic side due to differences in ocean conditions such as water density and weather.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://psmsl.org/train_and_info/faqs/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=psmsl.org}}</ref>

The 2015-16 fiscal year was one of the driest periods on record, restricting ships passage;<ref name="wp20230824">{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Mary Beth |date=2023-08-24 |title=Traffic jam at Panama Canal as water level plummets |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/08/24/panama-canal-ship-backup/ |access-date=2023-08-25 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> 2019 was the fifth driest year for 70 years. Temperature rise has also caused an increase in evaporation.<ref name="wired">{{Cite magazine |last=Jocelyn Timperley |date=2020-01-15 |title=The Panama Canal is running out of water |language=en-GB |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/panama-canal-climate-change |access-date=2023-08-25 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref> In normal times, 36 ships can transit the canal each day, but in early December 2023, ships were backing up because only 22 ships per day could transit due to low water levels.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yerushalmy |first=Jonathan |date=22 December 2023 |title=Changing climate casts a shadow over the future of the Panama Canal – and global trade |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/22/changing-climate-casts-a-shadow-over-the-future-of-the-panama-canal-and-global-trade |access-date=22 December 2023 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> In January 2024, 24 ships per day were allowed to transit.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 December 2023|title=Panama Canal to increase daily transits to 24 starting in January |url=https://pancanal.com/en/panama-canal-to-increase-daily-transits-to-24-starting-in-january/|access-date=29 December 2023 |website= Panama Canal Authority}}</ref>
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