Middle Ages

===Architecture and art===
{{see also|Migration Period art|pre-Romanesque art and architecture}}

[[File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A page from a book depicting a stylised bearded man holding a book, and four other men|A page from the ''[[Book of Kells]]'', an [[illuminated manuscript]] created in the British Isles]]

New basilicas were built in the major Roman cities and the post-Roman kingdoms in the {{nowrap|4th–6th centuries}}.{{refn|group=note|Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the [[Barcelona Cathedral]], the five-aisled [[Cathedral of Saint Étienne, Paris|Cathedral of Saint Étienne]] in Paris, and the huge [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]] in [[Ravenna]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=28–29}}}}{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=28–29}} Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the [[dome]] of Justinian's [[Hagia Sophia]], the largest single roofed structure of the Roman world.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=232–233}} As the spacious basilicas became of little use with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=21–44}} One new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a [[transept]], or the "arms" of a T-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long [[nave]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=43–44}} In Al-Andalus, the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Great Mosque of Córdoba]] became an extraordinary monument of [[Moorish architecture]].{{sfn|Adams|2011|p=172}}

Magnificent halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of Later Roman architecture like [[pilaster]]s, columns, and sculptured discs.{{refn|group=note|Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's [[Palace of Aachen|palace at Aachen]], the Carolingian [[Aula regia|royal palace at Ingelheim]], and the Asturian [[Santa María del Naranco|kings' palace at Oviedo]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=96–97}}}}{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=96–97}} After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses.{{refn|group=note|An early example of stone fortresses is [[Château de Doué-la-Fontaine|the residential keep]] built by [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] (d. 975) around 950.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=88–89}}}} One or more towers, now known as [[keep]]s, were their most characteristic features but castles often developed into multifunctional compounds with their [[drawbridge]]s, fortified courtyards, [[cistern]]s or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=83–90}}

Gold pouring to the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces, and eagle-shaped [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulae]] by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian [[polychrome]] and [[cloisonné]] metalworks, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=35–40}} Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinctly abstract design, characterised by ribbons and highly [[Animal style#Germanic animal style|stylised animal]] motifs.{{sfn|Nees|2002|pp=104–105}} [[Early medieval literature|Literary works]], like the [[Old English]] epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', and the Nordic [[saga]]s refer to great royal treasures but only a few of them survived, including the [[grave good]]s from Childeric's tomb at [[Tournai]], and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at [[Sutton Hoo]]. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of the secular style, such as [[strapwork]] ornamenting, and extensive segmentation.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=47–57}} Paintings have mainly survived in richly decorated [[Gospel Book]]s, including the ''[[Book of Kells]]'' and the ''[[Book of Lindisfarne]]''—two representative works of the [[Insular art]] of Ireland and Northumbria.{{refn|group=note|As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=63–64}}}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=41–42}}

The [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=22–28}} Although the iconoclastic movement restricted [[Byzantine art]], the [[Iconodulism|iconophiles']] triumph paved the way for an [[Macedonian art (Byzantine)|artistic renewal]].{{refn|group=note|Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated, and the newly built churches, like the [[Daphni Monastery]] in Greece, were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly decorated ivory panels, such as the [[Harbaville Triptych]], show the renewal of [[ivory carving]] during the same period.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=36–37}}}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=32–38}} The more naturalistic Mediterranean style served as an important source of inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne who treated visual arts as a powerful instrument of education and propaganda.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=40–41}} After a long pause, [[Carolingian art]] rediscovered the human figure, and western artists often depicted people in illuminated [[codex|codices]].{{refn|group=note|Examples include vivid caricatures in the ''[[Utrecht Psalter]]'', and more naturalistic miniatures in the ''[[Vienna Coronation Gospels|Gospel Book of Charlemagne]]''.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=47–49}}}} These were often protected by [[Treasure binding|sumptuous book covers]], made of gold, pearls, and [[Cabochon|polished gemstones]].{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=47–49}} Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative [[monumental sculpture]] in [[Christian art]],{{sfn|Lasko|1972|pp=16–18}} and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the [[Gero Cross]] were common in important churches.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=233–238}} In England, [[List of illuminated later Anglo-Saxon manuscripts|book illuminators]] freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs, such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the direct impact of contemporary Byzantine art on [[Ottonian art|Ottonian artists]]. In Christian Spain, artists adopted [[Islamic art|Islamic decorative]] motifs such as [[Kufic]] letters and [[Moorish arch]]es.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=60–77}}