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Do not fill this in! ===Consonants=== {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-<br/>Semitic]] ! rowspan="2" | IPA ! colspan="5" | Hebrew ! colspan="2" | Example |- ! style="font-size:85%" colspan="2"| written ! style="font-size:85%" | [[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]] ! style="font-size:85%" | [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]] ! style="font-size:85%" | [[Modern Hebrew|Modern]] ! style="font-size:85%" | Word ! style="font-size:85%" | Meaning |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}} ! {{IPAblink|b}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ב}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|ḇ}}/{{transl|sem|b}} | {{IPA|/b/}} | {{IPA|/v/, /b/}} | {{IPA|/v/, /b/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ב'''ית}}</big> | house |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Dalet|*d]]}} ! {{IPAblink|d}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ד}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|ḏ}}/{{transl|sem|d}} | {{IPA|/d/}} | {{IPA|/ð/, /d/}} | {{IPA|/d/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ד'''ב}}</big> | bear |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Gimel|*g]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ɡ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ג}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|ḡ}}/{{transl|sem|g}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} | {{IPA|/ɣ/, /ɡ/}} | {{IPA|/ɡ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ג'''מל}}</big> | camel |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}} ! {{IPAblink|p}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|פ}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|p̄}}/{{transl|sem|p}} | {{IPA|/p/}} | {{IPA|/f/, /p/}} | {{IPA|/f/, /p/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''פ'''חם}}</big> | coal |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Taw|*t]]}} ! {{IPAblink|t}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ת}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|ṯ}}/{{transl|sem|t}} | {{IPA|/t/}} | {{IPA|/θ/, /t/}} | {{IPA|/t/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ת'''מר}}</big> | palm |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Kaph|*k]]}} ! {{IPAblink|k}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|כ}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transl|sem|ḵ}}/{{transl|sem|k}} | {{IPA|/k/}} | {{IPA|/x/, /k/}} | {{IPA|/χ/, /k/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''כ'''ו'''כ'''ב}}</big> | star |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|tʼ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ט}}</big> || {{transl|sem|ṭ}} | {{IPA|/tˤ/}} | {{IPA|/tˤ/}} | {{IPA|/t/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ט'''בח}}</big> | cook |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Qoph|*q]]}} ! {{IPAblink|kʼ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ק}}</big> || {{transl|sem|q}} | {{IPA|/kˤ/}} | {{IPA|/q/}} | {{IPA|/k/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ק'''בר}}</big> | tomb |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ð}} / {{IPAblink|d͡ð}} | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ז}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transl|sem|z}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/z/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/z/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ז'''כר}}</big> | male |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Zayin|*z]]}} ! {{IPAblink|z}} / {{IPAblink|d͡z}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ז'''רק}}</big> | threw |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Samekh|*s]]}} ! {{IPAblink|s}} / {{IPAblink|t͡s}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ס}}</big> || {{transl|sem|s}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ס'''וכר}}</big> | sugar |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ʃ}} / {{IPAblink|s̠}} | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|שׁ}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transl|sem|š}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''שׁ'''מים}}</big> | sky |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|θ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡θ}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''שׁ'''מונה}}</big> | eight |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ɬ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡ɬ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|שׂ}}</big><sup>1</sup> || {{transl|sem|ś}} | {{IPA|/ɬ/}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | {{IPA|/s/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''שׂ'''מאל}}</big> | left |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|θʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡θʼ}} | rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|צ}}</big> || rowspan="3"| {{transl|sem|ṣ}} | rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} | rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} | rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/ts/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''ל}}</big> | shadow |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|sʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡sʼ}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''רח}}</big> | screamed |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡ɬʼ}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''חק}}</big> | laughed |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ɣ}}~{{IPAblink|ʁ}} | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ע}}</big>|| rowspan="2"| {{transl|sem|ʻ}} | {{IPA|/ʁ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʕ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʔ/, -}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ע'''ורב}}</big> | raven |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ʕ}} | {{IPA|/ʕ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ע'''שׂר}}</big> | ten |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ʔ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|א}}</big> || {{transl|sem|ʼ}} | {{IPA|/ʔ/}} | {{IPA|/ʔ/}} | {{IPA|/ʔ/, -}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''א'''ב}}</big> | father |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|x}}~{{IPAblink|χ}} | rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ח}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transl|sem|ḥ}} | {{IPA|/χ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ħ/}} | rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/χ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ח'''משׁ}}</big> | five |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ħ}} | {{IPA|/ħ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ח'''בל}}</big> | rope |- ! {{transl|sem|[[He (letter)|*h]]}} ! {{IPAblink|h}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ה}}</big> || {{transl|sem|h}} | {{IPA|/h/}} | {{IPA|/h/}} | {{IPA|/h/, -}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ה'''גר}}</big> | emigrated |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Mem|*m]]}} ! {{IPAblink|m}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|מ}}</big> || {{transl|sem|m}} | {{IPA|/m/}} | {{IPA|/m/}} | {{IPA|/m/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''מ'''ים}}</big> | water |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}} ! {{IPAblink|n}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|נ}}</big> || {{transl|sem|n}} | {{IPA|/n/}} | {{IPA|/n/}} | {{IPA|/n/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''נ'''ביא}}</big> | prophet |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Resh|*r]]}} ! {{IPAblink|ɾ}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ר}}</big> || {{transl|sem|r}} | {{IPA|/ɾ/}} | {{IPA|/ɾ/}} | {{IPA|/ʁ/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ר'''גל}}</big> | leg |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Lamedh|*l]]}} ! {{IPAblink|l}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ל}}</big> || {{transl|sem|l}} | {{IPA|/l/}} | {{IPA|/l/}} | {{IPA|/l/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ל'''שׁון}}</big> | tongue |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Yodh|*y]]}} ! {{IPAblink|j}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|י}}</big> || {{transl|sem|y}} | {{IPA|/j/}} | {{IPA|/j/}} | {{IPA|/j/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''י'''ד}}</big> | hand |- ! {{transl|sem|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}} ! {{IPAblink|w}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ו}}</big>|| {{transl|sem|w}} | {{IPA|/w/}} | {{IPA|/w/}} | {{IPA|/v/}} | <big>{{lang|he|'''ו'''רד}}</big> | rose |- ! | Proto-Semitic ! | IPA ! colspan="2" | Hebrew ! style="font-size:85%"| Biblical ! style="font-size:85%"| Tiberian ! style="font-size:85%"| Modern ! colspan="2" | Example |} Notes: # Proto-Semitic {{transl|sem|*ś}} was still pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɬ}} in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Phoenician alphabet, so the letter <big>{{script|Hebr|ש}}</big> had two pronunciations, representing both {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}}. Later on, however, {{IPA|/ɬ/}} merged with {{IPA|/s/}}, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of <big>{{script|Hebr|ש}}</big> were distinguished graphically in [[Tiberian Hebrew]] as <big>{{script|Hebr|שׁ}}</big> {{IPA|/ʃ/}} vs. <big>{{script|Hebr|שׂ}}</big> {{IPA|/s/}} < {{IPA|/ɬ/}}. # Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes {{transl|sem|ġ}} versus {{transl|sem|ʻ}} and {{transl|sem|ḫ}} versus {{transl|sem|ḥ}}, as witnessed by transcriptions in the [[Septuagint]]. As in the case of {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: <big>{{script|Hebr|ח}}</big> for {{IPA|/χ/ and /ħ/}} and <big>{{script|Hebr|ע}}</big> for {{IPA|/ʁ/ and /ʕ/}}. In all of these cases, however, the sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions. # Hebrew and Aramaic underwent [[begadkefat]] spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} were [[lenition|softened]] to the corresponding fricatives {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (written ''ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ'') when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Aharon Dolgopolsky |last=Dolgopolsky |first=Aron |date=1999 |title=From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew: Phonology: etymological approach in a Hamito-Semitic perspective |location=Milano |publisher=Centro Studi Camito-Semitici |page=72}}</ref> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} {{Circa|200 BCE}}.<ref group="note">According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=56}}.</ref> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}}</ref> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name=bbgd>{{cite book |last= Blau |first= Joshua |author-link= Joshua Blau |title= Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew: An Introduction |pages= 78–81 |publisher= Eisenbrauns |location= Winona Lake |series= Linguistic studies in ancient West Semitic |volume= 2 |year= 2010 |edition= revised |isbn= 978-1-57506-129-0 }} No text access via Google Books.</ref> In [[Modern Hebrew]], the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives {{IPA|/v χ f/}} are still preserved (the fricative {{IPA|/x/}} is pronounced {{IPA|/χ/}} in modern Hebrew). (The others are pronounced like the corresponding stops, as Modern Hebrew pronunciation was based on the [[Sephardic pronunciation]] which lost the distinction) Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page