Feminism

== Liberal feminism ==
{{Main|Liberal feminism}}
[[File:Elizabeth Stanton.jpg|thumb|[[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]], a major figure in 19th-century liberal feminism]]
[[Liberal feminism]], also known under other names such as reformist, mainstream, or historically as bourgeois feminism,<ref name="Voet">{{cite book |last1=Voet |first1=Rian |title=Feminism and Citizenship |date=1998 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=1-4462-2804-5 |page=25|chapter=Categorizations of feminism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lindsey |first=Linda L. |date=2015 |title=Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective |publisher= Routledge |page=17 |isbn=978-1-317-34808-5}}</ref> arose from 19th-century first-wave feminism, and was historically linked to 19th-century [[liberalism]] and [[progressivism]], while 19th-century conservatives tended to oppose feminism as such. Liberal feminism seeks equality of men and women through political and [[legal reform]] within a [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] framework, without radically altering the structure of society; liberal feminism "works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure".<ref>{{cite web |last1=West |first1=Rebecca |title=Kinds of Feminism |url=https://www.uah.edu/woolf/feminism_kinds.htm |publisher=University of Alabama in Huntsville}}</ref> During the 19th and early 20th centuries liberal feminism focused especially on women's suffrage and [[Female education|access to education]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marilley |first1=Suzanne M. |title=Woman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism in the United States, 1820–1920 |date=1996 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-95465-3}}</ref> Former Norwegian supreme court justice and former president of the liberal [[Norwegian Association for Women's Rights]], [[Karin Maria Bruzelius]], has described liberal feminism as "a realistic, sober, practical feminism".<ref>{{cite web |title=Hvem vi er |url=http://kvinnesak.no/om/ |publisher=Norwegian Association for Women's Rights|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>

Susan Wendell argues that "liberal feminism is an historical tradition that grew out of liberalism, as can be seen very clearly in the work of such feminists as Mary Wollstonecraft and [[John Stuart Mill]], but feminists who took principles from that tradition have developed analyses and goals that go far beyond those of 18th and 19th century liberal feminists, and many feminists who have goals and strategies identified as liberal feminist&nbsp;... reject major components of liberalism" in a modern or party-political sense; she highlights "equality of opportunity" as a defining feature of liberal feminism.<ref name="Wendell-1987">{{Cite journal|last=Wendell|first=Susan|date=June 1987|title=A (Qualified) Defense of Liberal Feminism |journal=[[Hypatia (journal)|Hypatia]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=65–93 |doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01066.x|s2cid=143213609 |issn=0887-5367}}</ref>

Liberal feminism is a very broad term that encompasses many, often diverging modern branches and a variety of feminist and general political perspectives; some historically liberal branches are [[equality feminism]], [[social feminism]], [[equity feminism]], [[difference feminism]], [[individualist feminism|individualist/libertarian feminism]] and some forms of [[state feminism]], particularly the state feminism of the [[Nordic countries]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Griffiths |first=Morwenna |date=April 1995 |title=Making a Difference: feminism, post-modernism and the methodology of educational research |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1080/0141192950210207 |journal=British Educational Research Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=219–235 |doi=10.1080/0141192950210207 |issn=0141-1926}}</ref> The broad field of liberal feminism is sometimes confused with the more recent and smaller branch known as libertarian feminism, which tends to diverge significantly from mainstream liberal feminism. For example, "libertarian feminism does not require social measures to reduce material inequality; in fact, it opposes such measures&nbsp;... in contrast, liberal feminism may support such requirements and egalitarian versions of feminism insist on them."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahowald |first1=Mary Briody |title=Genes, Women, Equality |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=145|chapter=Different Versions of Feminism}}</ref>

Catherine Rottenberg notes that the [[wikt:raison d'être|raison d'être]] of classic liberal feminism was "to pose an immanent critique of liberalism, revealing the gendered exclusions within liberal democracy's proclamation of universal equality, particularly with respect to the law, institutional access, and the full incorporation of women into the public sphere." Rottenberg contrasts classic liberal feminism with modern [[neoliberal]] feminism which "seems perfectly in sync with the evolving neoliberal order."<ref name="rotten">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/09502386.2013.857361|title = The Rise of Neoliberal Feminism|journal = [[Cultural Studies (journal)|Cultural Studies]]|volume = 28|issue = 3|pages = 418–437|year = 2014|last1 = Rottenberg|first1 = Catherine|s2cid = 144882102|url = http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/INFE/article/view/54954}}</ref> According to Zhang and Rios, "liberal feminism tends to be adopted by 'mainstream' (i.e., middle-class) women who do not disagree with the current social structure." They found that liberal feminism with its focus on equality is viewed as the dominant and "default" form of feminism.<ref name=ZhangRios>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y. |last2=Rios |first2=K. |title=Understanding Perceptions of Radical and Liberal Feminists: The Nuanced Roles of Warmth and Competence |journal=[[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]]|date=2021 |volume=86 |issue=3–4 |pages=143–158 |doi=10.1007/s11199-021-01257-y|s2cid=243479502 }}</ref>

Some modern forms of feminism that historically grew out of the broader liberal tradition have more recently also been described as [[List of conservative feminisms|conservative]] in relative terms. This is particularly the case for libertarian feminism which conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference.<ref name="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#ClasCri |title=Liberal Feminism |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2018 }}</ref>

=== Radical feminism ===
[[File:Feminism symbol.svg|upright|thumb|right|The merged [[Venus symbol]] with [[raised fist]] is a common symbol of [[radical feminism]], one of the movements within feminism]]

[[Radical feminism]] arose from the [[radical politics|radical]] wing of second-wave feminism and calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate [[male supremacy]]. It considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary.<ref name="Echols" /> [[Separatist feminism]] does not support heterosexual relationships. [[Lesbian feminism]] is thus closely related. Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist.<ref name="hooks">{{cite book|last=hooks |first=bell |author-link=Bell hooks |year=2000 |title=Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politics |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=South End Press |isbn=978-0-89608-629-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/feminismisforeve00hook }}</ref>

=== Materialist ideologies ===
[[File:Emma Goldman seated.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Emma Goldman]] a union activist, labour organizer and [[anarcha-feminist|feminist anarchist]]]]

[[Rosemary Hennessy]] and [[Chrys Ingraham]] say that materialist forms of feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which are involved in a critique of capitalism and are focused on ideology's relationship to women.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= Hennessy |first1= Rosemary |first2=Chrys |last2=Ingraham |title=Materialist Feminism: A Reader in Class, Difference, and Women's Lives |location= London |publisher=Routledge | pages=1–13 |isbn=978-0-415-91634-9 |year=1997}}</ref> [[Marxist feminism]] argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies.<ref name="Bottomore">{{Cite book |author=Bottomore, T.B. |title=A Dictionary of Marxist Thought |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | page=215 |isbn=978-0-631-18082-1 |year=1991}}</ref> [[Socialist feminism]] distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.feministezine.com/feminist/modern/Socialist-Feminism.html |title=What is Socialist Feminism? |author=Barbara Ehrenreich |publisher=feministezine.com |access-date=3 December 2011}}</ref> [[Anarcha-feminism|Anarcha-feminists]] believe that [[class struggle]] and [[anarchism|anarchy]] against the [[State (polity)|state]]<ref name="farrow">{{Cite book |last=Dunbar-Ortiz |first=Roxanne |title=Quiet Rumours |publisher=AK Press |isbn=978-1-902593-40-1 |year=2002 |pages=11–13}}</ref> require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy.

=== Other modern feminisms ===
==== Ecofeminism ====
[[Eco-feminist|Ecofeminists]] see men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the [[ecology|natural environment]]. Ecofeminism has been criticized for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature.<ref name="Biehl">{{Cite book |last=Biehl |first=Janet |author-link=Janet Biehl |title=Rethinking Eco-Feminist Politics |year=1991 |publisher=[[South End Press]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-89608-392-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingecofem0000bieh }}</ref>

==== Black and postcolonial ideologies ====
{{Further|Intersectional feminism}}

[[Sara Ahmed]] argues that [[Black feminism|Black]] and [[Postcolonial feminism|postcolonial]] feminisms pose a challenge "to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought".<ref name="Ahmed">{{Cite book |author=Ahmed, Sarta |title= Transformations: Thinking Through Feminism |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-22066-8 |page=111}}</ref> During much of its [[history of feminism|history]], feminist movements and [[#Theoretical schools|theoretical developments]] were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.<ref name="Walker">{{Cite book|author=Walker, Alice |title=In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose |year=1983 |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-15-144525-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofourmot00walk/page/397 397] |title-link=In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose }}</ref><ref name="BFT">{{cite book |last=Hill Collins |first=P. |title=Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment |url=https://archive.org/details/blackfeministtho0000coll |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackfeministtho0000coll/page/n308 1]–335}}</ref><ref name="Narayan"/> However, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms.<ref name="BFT" /> This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the end of Western European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in [[Third World|developing nations]] and [[postcolonialism|former colonies]] and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms.<ref name="Narayan" /> [[Womanism]]<ref name="Ogunyemi">{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/494200 |title=Womanism: The Dynamics of the Contemporary Black Female Novel in English |year=1985 |last1=Ogunyemi |first1=Chikwenye Okonjo |journal=[[Signs (journal)|Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=63–80 |jstor=3174287|s2cid=143836306 }}</ref><ref name="Kolawole">{{Cite book |author=Kolawole, Mary Ebun Modupe |title=Womanism and African Consciousness |year=1997 |publisher=Africa World Press |location=Trenton, N.J. |isbn=978-0-86543-540-7 |page=216}}</ref> emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class.<ref name="Walker" /> Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless.<ref name=Weedon>{{cite journal |last=Weedon |first=Chris |title=Key Issues in Postcolonial Feminism: A Western Perspective |year=2002 |url=http://www.genderforum.org/issues/genderealisations/key-issues-in-postcolonial-feminism-a-western-perspective/ |journal=Gender Forum |issue=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002056/http://www.genderforum.org/issues/genderealisations/key-issues-in-postcolonial-feminism-a-western-perspective/ |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref> [[Third-world feminism]] and [[indigenous feminism]] are closely related to postcolonial feminism.<ref name="Narayan">{{Cite book |last=Narayan |first=Uma |title=Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third-World Feminism |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-91418-5 |pages=20–28, 113, 161–87}}</ref> These ideas also correspond with ideas in [[African feminism]], motherism,<ref name="Acholonu">{{Cite book |last=Obianuju Acholonu |first=Catherine |title=Motherism: The Afrocentric Alternative to Feminism |year=1995 |publisher=Afa Publ. |isbn=978-978-31997-1-2 |page=144}}</ref> Stiwanism,<ref name="Ogundipe-Leslie">{{Cite book |last=Ogundipe-Leslie |first=Molara |title=Re-creating Ourselves: African Women & Critical Transformations |year=1994 |publisher=Africa World Press |isbn=978-0-86543-412-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/recreatingoursel00ogun/page/262 262] |url=https://archive.org/details/recreatingoursel00ogun/page/262 }}</ref> negofeminism,<ref name="Nnaemeka">{{cite journal |last=Nnaemeka |first=Obioma |title=Feminism, Rebellious Women, and Cultural Boundaries: Rereading Flora Nwapa and Her Compatriots |journal=[[Research in African Literatures]] |year=1995 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=80–113 |jstor=3820273}}</ref> femalism, [[transnational feminism]], and [[Africana womanism]].<ref name="Hudson-Weems">{{Cite book |last=Hudson-Weems |first=Clenora |title=Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves |year=1994 |publisher=Bedford Publishers |location=Troy, Mich. |isbn=978-0-911557-11-4 |page=158}}</ref>

==== Social constructionist ideologies ====
{{main|Social construction of gender}}
In the late 20th century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are [[social construction|socially constructed]],<ref name="Butler">{{cite book| last = Butler | first = Judith | author-link = Judith Butler | title = Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | orig-year = 1990 | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-415-92499-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/gendertroublefem00butl }}</ref><ref name=West&Zimmerman>{{cite journal | last1 = West | first1 = Candace | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Don H. | title = Doing gender | journal = [[Gender & Society]] | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–151 | doi = 10.1177/0891243287001002002 | jstor = 189945 | date = June 1987 | s2cid = 220519301 }} [https://campus.fsu.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/academic/social_sciences/sociology/Reading%20Lists/Social%20Psych%20Prelim%20Readings/IV.%20Structures%20and%20Inequalities/1987%20West%20Zimmerman%20-%20Doing%20Gender.pdf Pdf.]</ref> and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories.<ref name=Benhabib>{{citation |last=Benhabib |first=Seyla |title=From identity politics to social feminism: a plea for the Nineties |journal=Philosophy of Education |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=14 |year=1995 |url=https://ojs.education.illinois.edu/index.php/pes/issue/archive |access-date=20 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705233024/https://ojs.education.illinois.edu/index.php/pes/issue/archive |archive-date=5 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}

: ''Reproduced in'':
:* {{cite book | last = Benhabib | first = Seyla | chapter = From identity politics to social feminism: a plea for the Nineties | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ldmUEPvayQMC&pg=PA27 | editor-last1 = Melzer | editor-first1 = Arthur M. | editor-last2 = Weinberger | editor-first2 = Jerry | editor-last3 = Zinman | editor-first3 = M. Richard | title = Politics at the Turn of the Century | pages = 27–41 | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8476-9446-4 }}</ref> [[Post-structural feminism]] draws on the philosophies of [[post-structuralism]] and [[deconstruction]] in order to argue that the concept of gender is created socially and culturally through [[discourse]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Randall | first = Vicky | chapter = Feminism | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m70cBQAAQBAJ | editor-last1 = Marsh | editor-first1 = David | editor-last2 = Stoker | editor-first2 = Gerry | title = Theory and methods in political science | page = 116 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Basingstoke | year = 2010 | edition = 3rd | isbn = 978-0-230-57627-8 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Postmodern feminism|Postmodern feminists]] also emphasize the social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality;<ref name=Butler/> however, as [[Pamela Abbott]] et al. write, a postmodern approach to feminism highlights "the existence of multiple truths (rather than simply men and women's standpoints)".<ref>{{cite book| last1 =Abbott |first1=Pamela |last2=Wallace |first2=Claire |first3=Melissa |last3=Tyler | chapter = Feminist knowledge | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PPp7dfrNTroC&pg=PA380 | title = An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives | page = 380 | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2005 | edition = 3rd | isbn = 978-0-415-31259-2 }}
: ''Citing'':
:* {{cite book| last = Yeatman | first = Anna | chapter = The epistemological politics of postmodern feminist theorizing | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3W3QES9zwdsC&pg=PA15 | title = Postmodern Revisionings of the Political | pages = [https://archive.org/details/postmodernrevisi0000yeat/page/15 15–22] | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-415-90198-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/postmodernrevisi0000yeat/page/15 }}</ref>

==== Transgender people ====
{{Main|Feminist views on transgender topics}}

[[Third-wave feminists]] tend to view the struggle for [[Transgender rights|trans rights]] as an integral part of [[intersectional feminism]].<ref name="grady_vox">{{cite news |last=Grady |first=Constance |url=https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth |title=The waves of feminism, and why people keep fighting over them, explained |work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |date=20 June 2018 |access-date=26 April 2019 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405172242/https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Fourth-wave feminism|Fourth-wave feminists]] also tend to be trans-inclusive.<ref name="grady_vox"/> The American [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW) president [[Terry O'Neill (feminist)|Terry O'Neill]] said the struggle against [[transphobia]] is a feminist issue<ref name=now>{{cite web |title=Why Transphobia Is a Feminist Issue |date=8 September 2014 |url=https://now.org/blog/why-transphobia-is-a-feminist-issue/ |publisher=[[National Organization for Women]] |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> and NOW has affirmed that "trans women are women, trans girls are girls."<ref name=now2>{{cite web |title=NOW Celebrates International Transgender Day of Visibility |date=31 March 2021 |url=https://now.org/media-center/press-release/now-celebrates-transgender-day-of-visibility/ |publisher=[[National Organization for Women]]|access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> Several studies have found that people who identify as feminists tend to be more accepting of trans people than those who do not.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Platt |first1=Lisa F. |last2=Szoka |first2=Spring L. |title=Endorsement of Feminist Beliefs, Openness, and Mindful Acceptance as Predictors of Decreased Transphobia |journal=[[Journal of Homosexuality]] |date=28 January 2021 |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=185–202 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2019.1651109 |pmid=31411935 |s2cid=199663381 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conlin |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Douglass |first2=Richard P. |last3=Moscardini |first3=Emma H. |title=Predicting transphobia among cisgender women and men: The roles of feminist identification and gender conformity |journal=[[Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health]] |date=2 January 2021 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.1080/19359705.2020.1780535 |s2cid=225798026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brassel |first1=Sheila T. |last2=Anderson |first2=Veanne N. |title=Who Thinks Outside the Gender Box? Feminism, Gender Self-Esteem, and Attitudes toward Trans People |journal=Sex Roles |date=April 2020 |volume=82 |issue=7–8 |pages=447–462 |doi=10.1007/s11199-019-01066-4 |s2cid=198663918 }}</ref>

An ideology variously known as [[TERF|trans-exclusionary radical feminism]] (or its acronym, TERF)<ref name="MacDonald 2015">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Terry |title=Are you now or have you ever been a TERF? |journal=[[New Statesman|New Statesman America]] |date=16 February 2015 |access-date=13 April 2019 |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf |archive-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414015914/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/are-you-now-or-have-you-ever-been-terf |url-status=live }}</ref> or gender-critical feminism is critical of concepts of [[gender identity]] and [[transgender rights]], holding that [[biological sex]] characteristics are an immutable determination of gender or supersede the importance of gender identity,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zanghellini |first1=Aleardo |title=Philosophical Problems With the Gender-Critical Feminist Argument Against Trans Inclusion |journal=[[SAGE Open]] |date=April 2020 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=215824402092702 |doi=10.1177/2158244020927029 |s2cid=219733494 |url=https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/90937/4/2158244020927029.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103214816/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/90937/4/2158244020927029.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=5 June 2021|title=A backlash against gender ideology is starting in universities|work=Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2021/06/05/a-backlash-against-gender-ideology-is-starting-in-universities|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="Gordon-2021">{{Cite web|title=Woman accused of transphobia wins landmark employment case|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19362788.maya-forstater-wins-landmark-employment-case-gender-critical-beliefs/|access-date=10 June 2021|website=HeraldScotland|date=10 June 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Faulkner-2021">{{cite news|last=Faulkner|first=Doug|date=10 June 2021|title=Maya Forstater: Woman wins tribunal appeal over transgender tweets|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-57426579|access-date=10 June 2021|quote=Ms Forstater&nbsp;... claimed she was discriminated against because of her beliefs, which include 'that sex is immutable and not to be conflated with gender identity'.&nbsp;... But the Honourable Mr Justice Choudhury said her 'gender-critical beliefs' did fall under the Equalities Act as they 'did not seek to destroy the rights of trans persons'.}}</ref><ref name="Observer-2021">{{cite news|last=Observer editorial|date=27 June 2021|title=The Observer view on the right to free expression|work=Observer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jun/27/the-observer-view-on-the-right-to-free-expression|access-date=27 June 2021|quote='Gender-critical' beliefs refer to the view that someone's sex – whether they are male or female – is biological and immutable and cannot be conflated with someone's gender identity, whether they identify as a man or a woman. The belief that the patriarchal oppression of women is grounded partly in their biological sex, not just the social expression of gender, and that women therefore have the right to certain single-sex spaces and to organise on the basis of biological sex if they so wish, represents a long-standing strand of feminist thinking. Other feminists disagree, believing that gender identity supersedes biological sex altogether.}}</ref> that trans women are not women, and that trans men are not men.<ref name="Flaherty 2018">{{cite web |last1=Flaherty |first1=Colleen |title='TERF' War |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |access-date=12 April 2019 |website=[[Inside Higher Ed]] |date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407014511/http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/29/philosophers-object-journals-publication-terf-reference-some-feminists-it-really |url-status=live }}</ref> These views have been described as [[transphobia|transphobic]] by many other feminists.<ref name="Miller 2018">{{cite web |url=https://theoutline.com/post/6536/british-feminists-media-transphobic |title=Why Is British Media So Transphobic? |last1=Miller |first1=Edie |date=5 November 2018 |publisher=[[The Outline (website)|The Outline]] |access-date=3 May 2019 |quote=The truth is, while the British conservative right would almost certainly be more than happy to whip up a frenzy of transphobia, they simply haven't needed to, because some sections of the left over here are doing their hate-peddling for them. The most vocal source of this hatred has emerged, sadly, from within circles of radical feminists. British feminism has an increasingly notorious TERF problem. |archive-date=19 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019192628/https://theoutline.com/post/6536/british-feminists-media-transphobic |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dalbey_terfwars">{{cite news |last1=Dalbey |first1=Alex |title=TERF wars: Why trans-exclusionary radical feminists have no place in feminism |url=https://www.dailydot.com/irl/terf-meaning/ |access-date=27 January 2019 |work=Daily Dot |date=12 August 2018 |archive-date=28 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128082722/https://www.dailydot.com/irl/terf-meaning/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=usatoday_2017-03-16>{{cite news |last=Dastagir |first=Alia |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/03/16/feminism-glossary-lexicon-language/99120600/ |title=A feminist glossary because we didn't all major in gender studies |work=[[USA Today]] |date=16 March 2017 |access-date=24 April 2019 |quote=TERF: The acronym for 'trans exclusionary radical feminists,' referring to feminists who are transphobic. |archive-date=20 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720073940/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/03/16/feminism-glossary-lexicon-language/99120600/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lewis 2019">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/07/opinion/terf-trans-women-britain.html|title=Opinion {{!}} How British Feminism Became Anti-Trans|last=Lewis|first=Sophie|date=7 February 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=5 May 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115191351/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/07/opinion/terf-trans-women-britain.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="lgbtqnation_2017-10-23">{{Cite web|last=Taylor|first=Jeff|date=23 October 2017|title=The Christian right's new strategy: Divide and conquer the LGBT community|url=https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2017/10/christian-rights-new-strategy-divide-conquer-lgbt-community/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922155851/https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2017/10/christian-rights-new-strategy-divide-conquer-lgbt-community/|archive-date=22 September 2019|access-date=9 May 2019|website=www.lgbtqnation.com}}</ref><ref name=indy_2019-06-24>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indy100.com/article/joanna-cherry-snp-twitter-trans-rights-campaigners-pride-lgbt-edinburgh-8972341|title=SNP MP criticised for calling trans campaigners at Edinburgh Pride 'misogynistic'|date=24 June 2019|website=indy100|access-date=26 June 2019|archive-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114045153/https://www.indy100.com/article/joanna-cherry-snp-twitter-trans-rights-campaigners-pride-lgbt-edinburgh-8972341|url-status=live}}</ref>
<!-- Feminist views on [[transgender]] people differ. Some feminists do not view [[trans women]] as women,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/03/13/womens-issues-are-different-from-trans-womens-issues-feminist-author-says-sparking-criticism|title=Women's issues are different from trans women's issues, feminist author says, sparking criticism|last=Schmidt|first=Samantha|date=13 March 2017|work=The Washington Post}}</ref> believing that they have [[male privilege]] due to their [[sex assignment]] at birth.<ref name="newyorker">{{cite magazine|last1=Goldberg|first1=Michelle|title=What Is a Woman?|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|date=4 August 2014|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/04/woman-2|access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref> Additionally, some feminists reject the concept of transgender identity due to views that all behavioural differences between genders are a result of [[socialization]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} In contrast, other feminists and [[transfeminists]] believe that the liberation of trans women is a necessary part of feminist goals.<ref name="koyama-manifesto">{{cite web|author1-link=Emi Koyama|last1=Koyama |first1=Emi |title=The Transfeminist Manifesto |url=http://eminism.org/readings/pdf-rdg/tfmanifesto.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040401071911/http://www.eminism.org/readings/pdf-rdg/tfmanifesto.pdf |archive-date=2004-04-01 |url-status=live |website=eminism.org |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Third-wave feminists are overall more supportive of trans rights.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hines |first1=Sally |title=TransForming Gender: Transgender Practices of Identity, Intimacy and Care |date=2007 |publisher=Policy Press |location=Bristol |isbn=978-1-86134-916-3 |pages=85–101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snyder|first=R. Claire|date=2008|title=What Is Third-Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay|jstor=10.1086/588436|journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=175–196 |doi=10.1086/588436 |s2cid=144068546 |issn=0097-9740}}</ref> A key concept in transfeminism is of [[transmisogyny]],<ref>Jeffreys, Sheila (2014) ''Gender Hurts'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-53939-5}}, page 8.</ref> which is the irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against transgender women or feminine [[Gender variance|gender-nonconforming]] people.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/22/us/lgbt-julia-serano-transfeminist-trans-misogyny.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/22/us/lgbt-julia-serano-transfeminist-trans-misogyny.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |title=Julia Serano, Transfeminist Thinker, Talks Trans-Misogyny |newspaper=The New York Times |date=22 June 2017 |author=Jeanne Carstensen}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.juliaserano.com/av/TransmisogynyPrimer-Serano.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417061844/http://www.juliaserano.com/av/TransmisogynyPrimer-Serano.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-17 |url-status=live |author=Julia Serano |title=Trans-misogyny primer |access-date=29 June 2018}}</ref> -->

==== Cultural movements ====

Riot grrrls took an [[anti-corporate]] stance of [[self-sufficiency]] and [[Individualism|self-reliance]].<ref name=Rowe-Finbeiner>{{cite book|author=Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin |title=The F-Word: Feminism In Jeopardy – Women, Politics and the Future |year=2004 |publisher=Seal Press |isbn=978-1-58005-114-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/fwordfeminisminj00rowe }}</ref> Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.<ref name=Rosenberg_Garofalo>{{cite journal |author=Rosenberg, Jessica |author2=Gitana Garofalo |s2cid=144109102 |title=Riot Grrrl: Revolutions from within – Feminisms and Youth Cultures |journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=809–841 |date=Spring 1998 |doi=10.1086/495289 |jstor=3175311 }}</ref> The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls' standpoints central", allowing them to express themselves fully.<ref name=Code>{{cite book |author=Code, Lorraine |title=Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |place=London |isbn=978-0-415-30885-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffe0000unse/page/560 560] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffe0000unse/page/560 }}</ref> [[Lipstick feminism]] is a cultural feminist movement that attempts to respond to the backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of "feminine" identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and empowering personal choices.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scanlon |first=Jennifer |title=Bad Girls Go Everywhere: The Life of Helen Gurley Brown |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-534205-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/badgirlsgoeveryw00scan/page/94 94–111] |url=https://archive.org/details/badgirlsgoeveryw00scan/page/94 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Joanne |last1=Hollows |first2=Rachel |last2=Moseley |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RuRknkzxe4C&pg=PA84 |title=Feminism in Popular Culture |publisher=Berg Publishers |page=84 |isbn=978-1-84520-223-1}}</ref>