19th century

==Science and technology==
{{main|19th century in science}}
{{Distinguished men of science of Great Britain 1806-7|align=right}}
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term '''scientist''' was coined in 1833 by [[William Whewell]],<ref>{{cite web
| access-date=2008-03-03
| url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| title=William Whewell
| publisher=Stanford University
| date=2000-12-23
| last1=Snyder
| first1=Laura J.
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/
| archive-date=2010-01-04
| url-status=live
}}</ref> which soon replaced the older term of '''natural philosopher'''. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of [[Charles Darwin]] (alongside the independent researches of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]), who in 1859 published the book ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', which introduced the idea of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the [[germ theory of disease]]. Following this, [[Louis Pasteur]] made the first [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]], and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the [[Enantiomer|asymmetry of crystals]]. In chemistry, [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], following the [[atomic theory]] of [[John Dalton]], created the first [[periodic table]] of [[Chemical element|elements]]. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of [[Michael Faraday]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and their contemporaries led to the creation of [[electromagnetism]] as a new branch of science. [[Thermodynamics]] led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of [[hypercomplex number]]s. [[Karl Weierstrass]] and others carried out the [[arithmetization of analysis]] for functions of [[Function of a real variable|real]] and [[complex variable]]s. It also saw rise to [[Non-Euclidean geometry|new progress in geometry]] beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
[[File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michael Faraday]] (1791–1867)]]
[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
* [[1807]]: [[Potassium]] and [[Sodium]] are individually isolated by [[Sir Humphry Davy]].
* [[1831]]–[[1836]]: [[Charles Darwin]]'s journey on {{HMS|Beagle}}.
* [[1859]]: [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.
* [[1861]]: [[James Clerk Maxwell]] publishes ''[[On Physical Lines of Force]]'', formulating the four [[Maxwell's equations]].
* [[1865]]: [[Gregor Mendel]] formulates his [[laws of inheritance]].
* [[1869]]: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] creates the [[Periodic table]].
* [[1873]]: Maxwell's ''[[A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism]]'' published.
* [[1877]]: [[Asaph Hall]] discovers the [[moons of Mars]]
* [[1896]]: [[Henri Becquerel]] discovers [[radioactivity]]; [[J. J. Thomson]] identifies the [[electron]], though not by name.

===Medicine===
[[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Koch]] discovered the [[tuberculosis]] bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |title=Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421174847/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2009|date=2018-12-31 }}</ref>]]

* [[1804]]: [[Morphine]] first isolated.
* [[1842]]: [[Anesthesia]] used for the first time.
* [[1847]]: [[Chloroform]] invented for the first time, given to [[Queen Victoria]] at the birth of her eighth child, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]] in [[1853]]
* [[1855]]: [[Cocaine]] is isolated by [[Friedrich Gaedcke]].
* [[1885]]: [[Louis Pasteur]] creates the first successful [[vaccine]] against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
* [[1889]]: [[Aspirin]] patented.

===Inventions===

[[File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Edison]] was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and a long-lasting, practical electric [[light bulb]].]]
[[File:Erste Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|thumb|upright|First motor bus in history: the [[Karl Benz|Benz]] Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company]]
* [[1804]]: First [[steam locomotive]] begins operation.
* [[1816]]: [[Dandy horse|Laufmaschine]] invented by [[Karl von Drais]].
* [[1825]]: [[Erie Canal]] opened connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
* [[1825]]: First isolation of [[aluminium]].
* [[1827]]: First photograph taken (technique of [[heliography]]) by [[Joseph Nicephore Niepce]].
* [[1825]]: The [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], the first public railway in the world, is opened.
* [[1826]]: [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]].
* [[1829]]: First [[electric motor]] built.
* [[1837]]: [[Telegraphy]] patented.
* [[1841]]: The word "[[dinosaur]]" is coined by [[Richard Owen]].
* [[1844]]: First publicly funded [[telegraph]] line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
* [[1849]]: The [[safety pin]] and the [[gas mask]] are invented.
* [[1852]]: The first successful [[blimp]] is invented
* [[1855]]: [[Bessemer process]] enables [[steel]] to be mass-produced.
* [[1856]]: World's first [[oil refinery]] in [[Romania]]
* [[1858]]: Invention of the [[phonautograph]], the first true device for [[recorded sound|recording sound]].
* [[1859]]: The first [[ironclad]] was launched into sea by the [[French Navy]].
* [[1860]]: [[Benjamin Tyler Henry]] invents the 16-shot [[Henry Rifle]]
* [[1861]]: [[Richard Gatling]] invents the [[Gatling Gun]], first modern [[machine gun]] used notably in the battles of [[Cold Harbor]] and [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]]
* [[1862]]: First meeting in combat of [[ironclad warship]]s, {{USS|Monitor|1862|6}} and {{ship|CSS|Virginia}}, during the [[American Civil War]].
* [[1863]]: First section of the [[London Underground]] opens.
* [[1866]]: Successful [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
* [[1867]]: [[Alfred Nobel]] invents [[dynamite]].
* [[1868]]: [[Safety bicycle]] invented.
* [[1869]]: [[First transcontinental railroad]] completed in United States on 10 May.
* [[1870]]: [[Rasmus Malling-Hansen]]'s invention the [[Hansen Writing Ball]] becomes the first commercially sold [[typewriter]].
* [[1873]]: [[Jeans|Blue jeans]] and [[barbed wire]] are invented.
* [[1877]]: [[Thomas Edison]] invents the [[phonograph]]
* [[1878]]: First commercial [[telephone exchange]] in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* c. [[1875]]/[[1880]]: Introduction of the widespread use of electric [[lighting]]. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoor [[Arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems by 1880.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html|title=Arc Lamps – How They Work & History|website=edisontechcenter.org}}</ref>
* [[1879]]: [[Thomas Edison]] patents a practical [[incandescent light bulb]].
* [[1882]]: Introduction of large scale [[Electric power industry|electric power utilities]] with the Edison [[Holborn Viaduct power station|Holborn Viaduct]] (London) and [[Pearl Street Station|Pearl Street]] (New York) power stations supplying indoor electric lighting using Edison's incandescent bulb.<ref>Jonathan Daly, The Rise of Western Power – A Comparative History of Western Civilization, Bloomsbury Publishing · 2013, page 310</ref><ref>Turan Gonen, Electric Power Distribution Engineering, CRC Press · 2015, page 1</ref>
* [[1884]]: [[Sir Hiram Maxim]] invents the first self-powered [[Machine gun]].
* [[1885]]: [[Singer Manufacturing Company|Singer]] begins production of the '[[Singer Model 27 and 127|Vibrating Shuttle]]'. which would become the most popular model of [[sewing machine]].
* [[1886]]: [[Karl Benz]] sells the first commercial [[automobile]].
* [[1890]]: The [[cardboard box]] is invented.
* [[1892]]: [[John Froelich]] develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered [[tractor]].
* [[1894]]: [[Karl Elsener (inventor)|Karl Elsener]] invents the [[Swiss Army knife]].
* [[1894]]: First [[gramophone record]].
* [[1895]]: [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] identifies [[x-rays]].