Racial segregation in the United States

==Contemporary==
{{quote box|width=23em|As far as I'm concerned, what he did in those days—and they were hard days, in 1937—made it possible for Negroes to have their chance in baseball and other fields.|— Lionel Hampton on [[Benny Goodman]],<ref>"Ibid"; Firestone, Ross pp. 183–184.</ref> who helped to launch the careers of many major names in jazz, and during an era of [[racial segregation|segregation]], he also led one of the first racially integrated musical groups.}}

Black–white segregation is consistently declining for most metropolitan areas and cities, though there are geographical differences. In 2000, for instance, the [[United States Census Bureau|US Census Bureau]] found that residential segregation has on average declined since 1980 in the West and South, but less so in the Northeast and Midwest.<ref name="census">{{cite web |title=Residential Segregation of Blacks or African Americans: 1980{{ndash}}2000 |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/housing_patterns/pdf/ch5.pdf |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=August 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327095115/https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/housing_patterns/pdf/ch5.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2006 |language=en |date=Aug 2002}}</ref> Indeed, the top ten most segregated cities are in the [[Rust Belt]], where total populations have declined in the last few decades.{{R|census|p=64, 72}} Despite these pervasive patterns, changes for individual areas are sometimes small.<ref name="SethiSomanathan2004" /> Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remained a residentially segregated society in which blacks and whites still often inhabited vastly different neighborhoods.<ref name="SethiSomanathan2004">{{cite journal |title=Inequality and Segregation |first1=Rajiv |last1=Sethi |first2=Rohini |last2=Somanathan |journal=Journal of Political Economy|volume=112 |year=2004 |issue=6 |pages=1296–1321 |doi=10.1086/424742 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1029.4552 |s2cid=18358721 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Douglas S. Massey |author-link=Douglas Massey |date=August 2004 |title=Segregation and Stratification: A Biosocial Perspective |journal=[[Du Bois Review|Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=7–25 |doi=10.1017/S1742058X04040032 |s2cid=144395873}}</ref> An article in [[The Guardian]] newspaper cited a study from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] that "more than 80% of America’s large metropolitan areas were more racially segregated in 2019 than they were in 1990".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Beckett|first1=Lois|title='Where you live determines everything': why segregation is growing in the US|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/28/us-racial-segregation-study-university-of-california-berkeley|accessdate=February 16, 2024|work=The Guardian|date=June 28, 2021}}</ref> The study led by Stephen Menendian found present day race segregation to occur across a range of parameters including housing and property values, schools and healthcare.

[[Redlining]] is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as [[banking]], [[insurance]], access to jobs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |access-date=February 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130210614/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |archive-date=November 30, 2007 }}</ref> access to health care,<ref>See: [[Race and health]]</ref> or even [[supermarkets]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1015772503007 |title=In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition |first=Elizabeth |last=Eisenhauer |s2cid=151164815 |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=125–133 }}</ref> to residents in certain, often racially determined,<ref name="eastny">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWo8OFJpFtAC |title=How East New York Became a Ghetto |first=Walter |last=Thabit |isbn=978-0814782675 |page=42 |year=2003 |publisher=NYU Press }}</ref> areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to [[Mortgage Discrimination]]. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.<ref name="vigdor">{{cite journal |title=The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto |first1=David M. |last1=Cutler |author1-link=David Cutler |first2=Edward L. |last2=Glaeser |author2-link=Edward Glaeser  |first3=Jacob L. |last3=Vigdor |s2cid=134413201 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=107 |issue=3 |year=1999 |pages=455–506 |doi=10.1086/250069 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:2770033 }}</ref>

The creation of [[Interstate Highway System|expressways]] in some cases divided and isolated [[black neighborhoods]] from goods and services, many times within industrial corridors. For example, Birmingham's Interstate Highway system attempted to maintain the racial boundaries that had been established by the city's 1926 racial zoning law. The construction of Interstate Highways through black neighborhoods in the city led to significant population loss in those neighborhoods and is associated with an increase in neighborhood racial segregation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=From Racial Zoning to Community Empowerment: The Interstate Highway System and the African American Community in Birmingham, Alabama |first=Charles E. |last=Connerly |s2cid=144767245 |journal=Journal of Planning Education and Research |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=99–114 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/0739456X02238441 }}</ref>

The desire of some whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in [[white flight]] to the suburbs,<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 Segregation in the United States – MSN Encarta<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430211002/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 |date=April 30, 2007 }}</ref> and in the foundation of numerous [[Segregation academy|segregation academies]] and [[Private school#United States|private schools]] which most African-American students, though technically permitted to attend, are unable to afford.<ref>Glenda Alice Rabby, ''The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida'', Athens, Ga., University of Georgia Press, 1999, {{ISBN|082032051X}}, p. 255.</ref> Recent studies in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners tended to self-segregate to be with people of the same education level and race.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bayer |first1=Patrick |last2=Ferreira |first2=Fernando |last3=McMillan |first3=Robert |title=A Unified Framework for Measuring Preferences for Schools and Neighborhoods |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy]] |date=August 2007 |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=588–638 |doi=10.1086/522381 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/522381 |quote=... there is considerable heterogeneity in preferences for schools and neighbors, with households preferring to self‐segregate on the basis of both race and education |access-date=March 6, 2022|hdl=10161/2014 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><!-- working paper link: https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w13236/w13236.pdf  [[Live Science]] reference: Homeowners Self-Segregate by Race and Education,  https://web.archive.org/web/20070916040348/http://news.yahoo.com/s/livescience/20070910/sc_livescience/homeownersselfsegregatebyraceandeducation --> By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by indirect factors, including the phenomenon where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas.<ref name="vigdor"/> The residential and social segregation of whites from blacks in the United States creates a socialization process that limits whites' chances for developing meaningful relationships with blacks and other minorities. The segregation experienced by whites from blacks fosters segregated lifestyles and leads them to develop positive views about themselves and negative views about blacks.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Every Place Has a Ghetto...': The Significance of Whites' Social and Residential Segregation |first1=Eduardo |last1=Bonilla-Silva |first2=David G. |last2=Embrick |journal=[[Symbolic Interaction (journal)|Symbolic Interaction]] |year=2007 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=323–345 |doi=10.1525/si.2007.30.3.323 }}</ref>

Segregation affects people from all social classes. For example, a survey conducted in 2000 found that middle-income, suburban Blacks live in neighborhoods with many more whites than do poor, inner-city blacks. But their neighborhoods are not the same as those of whites having the same socioeconomic characteristics; and, in particular, middle-class blacks tend to live with white neighbors who are less affluent than they are. While, in a significant sense, they are less segregated than poor blacks, race still powerfully shapes their residential options.<ref>{{cite journal |title=How Segregated Are Middle-Class African Americans? |first1=Richard D. |last1=Alba |first2=John R. |last2=Logan |first3=Brian J. |last3=Stults |journal=[[Social Problems]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |year=2000 |pages=543–558 |doi= 10.2307/3097134|jstor=3097134 }}</ref>

The number of hypersegregated inner-cities is now beginning to decline. By reviewing census data, Rima Wilkes and John Iceland found that nine metropolitan areas that had been hypersegregated in 1990 were not by 2000.<ref name="Wilkes, R. 2004 pp. 23">{{cite journal |last1=Wilkes |first1=R. |last2=Iceland |first2=J. |s2cid=5777361 |title=Hypersegregation in the Twenty First Century |journal=Demography |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1353/dem.2004.0009 |pmid=15074123 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Only two new cities, [[Atlanta]] and [[Mobile, Alabama]], became hypersegregated over the same time span.<ref name="Wilkes, R. 2004 pp. 23"/> This points toward a trend of greater integration across most of the United States.

===Residential===
{{Main|Residential segregation in the United States}}
{{further|American ghettos}}
[[File:2000census- Black Residential Segregation.JPG|thumb|alt=Map showing a large concentration of black residents in the north side of metropolitan Milwaukee.|Residential segregation in [[Milwaukee]], the most segregated city in America according to the 2000 US Census. The cluster of blue dots represent black residents.{{R|census|p=72{{ndash}}73}}]]

Racial segregation is most pronounced in housing. Although in the U.S. people of different races may work together, they are still very unlikely to live in integrated neighborhoods. This pattern differs only by degree in different metropolitan areas.<ref name="Keating">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0bnHQAACAAJ |title=The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods |first=William Dennis |last=Keating |publisher=Temple University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1566391474 }}</ref>

Residential segregation persists for a variety of reasons. Segregated neighborhoods may be reinforced by the practice of "[[Racial steering|steering]]" by real estate agents. This occurs when a real estate agent makes assumptions about where their client might like to live based on the color of their skin.<ref name='Encyc of Chicago – "Steering"'>{{cite encyclopedia|last=deVise|first=Pierre|title=Steering|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1195.html|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Chicago|publisher=Chicago Historical Society|access-date=October 7, 2012|year=2005}}</ref> Housing discrimination may occur when landlords lie about the availability of housing based on the race of the applicant or give different terms and conditions to the housing based on race; for example, requiring that black families pay a higher security deposit than white families.<ref>{{cite news|last=Thomas|first=Danielle|title=Investigation Reveals Blatant Housing Discrimination on Coast|url=http://www.wlox.com/Global/story.asp?S=1672782|access-date=October 7, 2012|newspaper=WLOX|date=February 26, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616041708/http://www.wlox.com/Global/story.asp?S=1672782|archive-date=June 16, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Redlining has helped preserve segregated living patterns for blacks and whites in the United States because discrimination motivated by [[prejudice]] is often contingent on the racial composition of neighborhoods where the loan is sought and the race of the applicant. Lending institutions have been shown to treat black mortgage applicants differently when buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods in 1998.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Stephen R. |last=Holloway |year=1998 |title=Exploring the Neighborhood Contingency of Race Discrimination in Mortgage Lending in Columbus, Ohio |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=252–276 |doi=10.1111/1467-8306.00093 }}</ref>

These discriminatory practices are illegal. The [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968 prohibits housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. The [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]] is charged with administering and enforcing fair housing laws. Any person who believes that they have faced housing discrimination based on their race can file a fair housing complaint.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/online-complaint |title=Housing Discrimination Complaint Online Form – HUD |publisher=Portal.hud.gov |access-date=October 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005022332/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Ffair_housing_equal_opp%2Fonline-complaint |archive-date=October 5, 2013 }}</ref>

Households were held back or limited to the money that could be made. Inequality was present in the workforce which lead over to the residential areas. This study provides this statistic of "The median household income of African Americans were 62 percent of non-Hispanic Whites ($27,910 vs. $44,504)"<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaskins|first1=Darrell J.|s2cid=154156857|title=Racial Disparities inHealth and Wealth: The Effects of Slavery and Past Discrimination|journal=Review of Black Political Economy|date=Spring 2005|volume=32 3/4|issue=2005|page=95|doi=10.1007/s12114-005-1007-9}}</ref> Blacks were forced by the system to be in urban and poor areas while the whites lived together, being able to afford the more expensive homes. These forced measures promoted poverty levels to rise and belittle blacks.

Massey and Denton proposed that the fundamental cause of [[poverty among African Americans]] is segregation. This segregation has created the inner city black urban ghettos that create [[poverty trap]]s and keep blacks from being able to escape the underclass. It is sometimes claimed that these neighborhoods have institutionalized an inner-city black culture that is negatively stigmatized and purports the economic situation of the black community. Sociolinguist, William Labov<ref>Labov (2008) Unendangered Dialects, Endangered People. In King, K., N. Shilling-Estes, N. Wright Fogle, J. J. Lou, and B. Soukup (eds.), Sustaining Linguistic Diversity: Endangered and Minority Languages and Language Varieties (Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics Proceedings). Georgetown University Press, pp. 219–238.</ref> argues that persistent segregation supports the use of [[African American English]] (AAE) while endangering its speakers. Although AAE is stigmatized, sociolinguists who study it note that it is a legitimate dialect of English as systematic as any other.<ref>Green, Lisa. 2002. African American English: a linguistic introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Arthur Spears argues that there is no inherent educational disadvantage in speaking AAE and that it exists in vernacular and more standard forms.<ref>Spears, Arthur. 2001. "Ebonics" and African-American English. In Clinton Crawford (ed.) The Ebonics and Language Education of African Ancestry Students. Brooklyn, NY: Sankofa World Publishers. pp. 235–247.</ref>

Historically, residential segregation split communities between the black inner city and white suburbs. This phenomenon is due to [[white flight]] where whites actively leave neighborhoods often because of a black presence. There are more than just geographical consequences to this, as the money leaves and poverty grows, crime rates jump and businesses leave and follow the money. This creates a job shortage in segregated neighborhoods and perpetuates the economic inequality in the inner city. With the wealth and businesses gone from inner-city areas, the tax base decreases, which hurts funding for education. Consequently, those that can afford to leave the area for better schools leave decreasing the tax base for educational funding even more. Any business that is left or would consider opening doesn't want to invest in a place nobody has any money but has a lot of crime, meaning the only things that are left in these communities are poor black people with little opportunity for employment or education."<ref>{{cite book |last=Newman |first=Katherine |title=No Shame in My Game: The Working Poor in the Inner City |url=https://archive.org/details/noshameinmygamew00newm |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |year=1999 |isbn=978-0375402548 }}</ref>

Today, a number of whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kiel |first1=K. A. |first2=J. E. |last2=Zabel |title=Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects |journal=Journal of Housing Economics |volume=5 |year=1996 |issue=2 |pages=143–165 |doi=10.1006/jhec.1996.0008 }}</ref>  By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods again effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into white neighborhoods. While some scholars maintain that residential segregation has continued—some sociologists have termed it "[[hypersegregation]]" or "American Apartheid"<ref name="American Apartheid">{{Cite book| author = Douglas S. Massey| author-link = Douglas Massey| author2 = Nancy A. Denton| author2-link = Nancy Denton| title = American Apartheid| publisher = Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge| year = 1993| isbn = 978-0674018204| oclc = 185399837}}</ref>—the US Census Bureau has shown that residential segregation has been in overall decline since 1980.{{R|census|p=59{{ndash}}60, 68, 72}} According to a 2012 study found that "credit markets enabled a substantial fraction of Hispanic families to live in neighborhoods with fewer black families, even though a substantial fraction of black families were moving to more racially integrated areas. The net effect is that credit markets increased racial segregation."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ouazad |first1=Amine |last2=Rancière |first2=Romain |title=Did the mortgage credit boom contribute to the decline in US racial segregation? |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/did-mortgage-credit-boom-contribute-decline-us-racial-segregation |website=VoxEU |publisher=[[Centre for Economic Policy Research]] |access-date=November 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519175908/http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/7729 |archive-date=2012-05-19 |date=March 16, 2012 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

As of 2015, residential segregation had taken new forms in the United States with black [[majority minority]] suburbs such as [[Ferguson, Missouri]], supplanting the historic model of black inner cities, white suburbs.<ref name=ASA72815>{{cite web|author1=Daniel Fowler|title=With Racial Segregation Declining Between Neighborhoods, Segregation Now Taking New Form|url=http://www.asanet.org/documents/press/pdfs/ASR_August_2015_Lichter_News_Release.pdf|website=asanet.org|publisher=American Sociological Association|access-date=August 4, 2015|format=News release|date=July 28, 2015|quote=The racial composition of Ferguson went from about 25 percent black to 67 percent black in a 20-year period.}}</ref> Meanwhile, in locations such as Washington, D.C., [[gentrification]] had resulted in development of new white neighborhoods in historically black inner cities. Segregation occurs through premium pricing by white people of housing in white neighborhoods and exclusion of low-income housing<ref name=Atlantic6215>{{cite news|author1=Alana Semuels|title=Where Should Poor People Live?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/where-should-poor-people-live/394556/|access-date=August 4, 2015|work=The Atlantic|date=June 2, 2015|quote=For more than a century, municipalities across the country have crafted zoning ordinances that seek to limit multi-family (read: affordable) housing within city limits. Such policies, known as exclusionary zoning, have led to increased racial and social segregation, which a growing body of work indicates limits educational and employment opportunities for low-income households.}}</ref> rather than through rules which enforce segregation. Black segregation is most pronounced; Hispanic segregation less so, and Asian segregation the least.<ref name=CityLabs>{{cite news|author1=Alana Semuels|title=White Flight Never Ended Today's cities may be more diverse overall, but people of different races still don't live near each other.|url=http://www.citylab.com/housing/2015/07/white-flight-never-ended/400016/|access-date=August 4, 2015|work=CityLabs|publisher=The Atlantic|date=July 30, 2015}}</ref><ref name=ASR815>{{cite journal|author1=Daniel T. Lichter |author2=Domenico Parisi |author3=Michael C. Taquino |s2cid=53632555 |title=Toward a New Macro-Segregation? Decomposing Segregation within and between Metropolitan Cities and Suburbs|journal=American Sociological Review|date=August 2015|volume=80|issue=4|pages=843–873|doi=10.1177/0003122415588558}}</ref>

===Commercial and industrial===
Lila Ammons discusses the process of establishing black-owned banks during the 1880s–1990s, as a method of dealing with the discriminatory practices of financial institutions against African-American citizens of the United States. Within this period, she describes five distinct periods that illustrate the developmental process of establishing these banks, which were:

====1888–1928====
In 1851, one of the first meetings to begin the process of establishing black-owned banks took place, although the ideas and implementation of these ideas were not utilized until 1888.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Annons|first1=Lila|title=Evolution of Black-Owned Banks|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=4|page=469}}</ref>
During this period, approximately 60 black-owned banks were created, which gave blacks the ability to access loans and other banking needs, which non-minority banks would not offer African-Americans.

====1929–1953====
Only five banks were opened during this time, while seeing many black-owned banks closed, leaving these banks with an expected nine-year life span for their operations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1966|volume=26|issue=5|page=473}}</ref> With blacks continuing to migrate toward northern urban areas, they were challenged by high unemployment rates, due to whites taking their jobs.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thieblot|first1=A.|title=The Negro in the Banking Industry: Report no. 9|date=1970|publisher=University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, Department of Industry|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> At this time, the entire [[Banking in the United States|banking industry in the U.S.]] was stagnated, and these smaller banks even more for having higher closure rates and lower rates of loan repayment. The first groups of banks invested their profits back into the black community, whereas banks established during this period invested their finances mainly in [[mortgage loan]]s, [[fraternal societies]], and [[U.S. Bonds|U.S. government bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=476}}</ref>

====1954–1969====
Approximately 20 more banks were established during this period, which also saw African Americans become active citizens by taking part in various social movements centered around economic equality, better housing, better jobs, and the desegregation of society.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=477}}</ref> Through desegregation, these banks could no longer solely depend on the Black community for business and were forced to become established on the open market, by paying their employees competitive wages, and were now required to meet the needs of the entire society instead of just the Black community.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====1970–1979====
Urban [[deindustrialization]] was occurring, resulting in the number of black-owned banks being increased considerably, with 35 banks established, during this time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=478–80}}</ref> Although this change in economy allowed more banks to be opened, this period further impoverished African-American communities, as unemployment rates raised more with the shift in the labour market, from unskilled labour to government jobs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=479–80}}</ref>

====1980–1990s====
Approximately 20 banks were established during this time, competing with other financial institutions that serve the financial necessities of people at a lower cost.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=484}}</ref>

====2000s====
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2003 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for business density, business size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dan |last=Immergluck |s2cid=153818729 |title=Redlining Redux |journal=[[Urban Affairs Review]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=22–41 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/107808702401097781 }}</ref> Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Gregory D. |last=Squires |s2cid=10070258 |title=Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas |journal=Journal of Urban Affairs |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=391–410 |doi=10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168 |year=2003 }}</ref> Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers, a factor that disproportionately affects black workers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |first1=Yves |last1=Zenou |author1-link=Yves Zenou |first2=Nicolas |last2=Boccard |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=260–285 |doi=10.1006/juec.1999.2166 |year=2000 |citeseerx=10.1.1.70.1487 }}</ref>

[[Rich Benjamin]]'s book, ''[[Searching for Whitopia|Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America]]'', reveals the state of residential, educational, and social segregation.  In analyzing racial and class segregation, the book documents the migration of white Americans from urban centers to small-town, exurban, and rural communities. Throughout the 20th Century, racial discrimination was deliberate and intentional. Today, racial segregation and division result from policies and institutions that are no longer explicitly designed to discriminate. Yet the outcomes of those policies and beliefs have negative, racial impacts, namely with segregation.<ref>[[Rich Benjamin|Benjamin, Rich]]. ''Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America''. (New York: Hachette Books, 2009).</ref>

===Transportation===
Local bus companies practiced segregation in city buses. This was challenged in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] by [[Rosa Parks]], who refused to give up her seat to a white passenger, and by Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], who organized the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–1956). A federal court suit in Alabama, ''[[Browder v. Gayle]]'' (1955), was successful at the district court level, which ruled Alabama's bus segregation laws illegal. It was upheld at the Supreme Court level.

In 1961 [[Congress of Racial Equality]] director [[James Farmer]], other CORE members and some [[Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee]] members traveled as a mixed race group, [[Freedom Riders]], on Greyhound buses from Washington, D.C., headed toward [[New Orleans]]. In several states the travelers were subject to violence. In [[Anniston, Alabama]] the [[Ku Klux Klan]] attacked the buses, setting one bus on fire. After U.S. attorney general [[Robert F. Kennedy]] resisted taking action and urged restraint by the riders, Kennedy relented. He urged the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] to issue an order directing that buses, trains, and their intermediate facilities, such as stations, restrooms and water fountains be desegregated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/freedom-rides|title=Freedom Rides|date=June 29, 2017|website=The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/freedom-riders-end-racial-segregation-southern-us-public-transit-1961|title=Freedom Riders end racial segregation in Southern U.S. public transit, 1961 &#124; Global Nonviolent Action Database|website=nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu}}</ref>