Crusades

===The Crusades of 1239–1241===
{{main|Barons' Crusade}}

The Crusades of 1239–1241, also known as the [[Barons' Crusade]], were a series of crusades to the Holy Land that, in territorial terms, were the most successful since the First Crusade.<ref>Burgturf, Jochen. "Crusade of 1239–1241". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 309–311.</ref> The major expeditions were led separately by [[Theobald I of Navarre]] and [[Richard of Cornwall]].<ref>[[Sidney Painter|Painter, Sidney]] (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0027.pdf The Crusade of Theobald of Champagne and Richard of Cornwall, 1239–1241].". In Setton, K., ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II''. pp. 463–486.</ref> These crusades are sometimes discussed along with that of [[Baldwin II, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Courtenay]] to Constantinople.<ref>Hendrickx, Benjamin. "Baldwin II of Constantinople". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 133–135.</ref>

[[File:Beit_hanun_1239.jpg|thumb|The defeat of the Crusaders at Gaza, depicted in the ''Chronica majora'' of [[Matthew Paris]], 13th century]]

In 1229, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and the Ayyubid sultan [[al-Kamil]], had agreed to a ten-year truce. Nevertheless, [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]], who had condemned this truce from the beginning, issued the papal bull ''[[Rachel suum videns]]'' in 1234 calling for a new crusade once the truce expired. A number of English and French nobles took the cross, but the crusade's departure was delayed because Frederick, whose lands the crusaders had planned to cross, opposed any crusading activity before the expiration of this truce. Frederick was again excommunicated in 1239, causing most crusaders to avoid his territories on their way to the Holy Land.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=205–220|loc=Legalized Anarchy}}

The French expedition was led by [[Theobald I of Navarre]] and [[Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh of Burgundy]], joined by [[Amaury de Montfort (died 1241)|Amaury of Montfort]] and [[Peter I, Duke of Brittany|Peter of Dreux]].<ref name=":252">[[Peter Jackson (historian)|Jackson, Peter]]. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/616893 The Crusades of 1239–1241 and Their Aftermath]". ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 50, No. 1 (1987). pp. 32–60.</ref> On 1 September 1239, Theobald arrived in Acre, and was soon drawn into the [[Ayyubid dynasty#Syro-Egyptian divide|Ayyubid civil war]], which had been raging since the death of al-Kamil in 1238.{{sfn|Gibb|1969|pp=703–709|loc=The Ayyubids from 1229–1244}} At the end of September, al-Kamil's brother [[As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus|as-Salih Ismail]] seized Damascus from his nephew, [[as-Salih Ayyub]], and recognised [[al-Adil II]] as sultan of Egypt. Theobald decided to fortify [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] to protect the southern border of the kingdom and to move against Damascus later. While the Crusaders were marching from Acre to Jaffa, Egyptian troops moved to secure the border in what became the [[Battle at Gaza (1239)|Battle at Gaza]].<ref name=":233">Burgturf, Jochen. "Gaza, Battle of (1239)". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 498–499.</ref> Contrary to Theobald's instructions and the advice of the military orders, a group decided to move against the enemy without further delay, but they were surprised by the Muslims who inflicted a devastating defeat on the Franks. The masters of the military orders then convinced Theobald to retreat to Acre rather than pursue the Egyptians and their Frankish prisoners. A month after the battle at Gaza, [[An-Nasir Dawud|an-Nasir Dā'ūd]], emir of [[Al-Karak|Kerak]], seized Jerusalem, virtually unguarded. The internal strife among the Ayyubids allowed Theobald to negotiate the return of Jerusalem. In September 1240, Theobald departed for Europe, while Hugh of Burgundy remained to help fortify Ascalon.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=755–780|loc=The Crusades of 1239–1241}}

On 8 October 1240, the English expedition arrived, led by Richard of Cornwall.{{sfn|Tyerman|1996|pp=101–107|loc=The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall}} The force marched to Jaffa, where they completed the negotiations for a truce with Ayyubid leaders begun by Theobald just a few months prior. Richard consented, the new agreement was ratified by Ayyub by 8 February 1241, and prisoners from both sides were released on 13 April. Meanwhile, Richard's forces helped to work on Ascalon's fortifications, which were completed by mid-March 1241. Richard entrusted the new fortress to an imperial representative, and departed for England on 3 May 1241.{{sfn|Richard|1999|pp=319–324|loc=The Barons' Crusade}}

In July 1239, Baldwin of Courtenay, the young heir to the Latin Empire, travelled to Constantinople with a small army. In the winter of 1239, Baldwin finally returned to Constantinople, where he was crowned emperor around Easter of 1240, after which he launched his crusade. Baldwin then besieged and captured [[Tzurulum]], a Nicaean stronghold seventy-five miles west of Constantinople.<ref>[[J. B. Bury]] (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bury, John Bagnell|Baldwin II (emperor of Romania)]]" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''3.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 867.</ref>

Although the Barons' Crusade returned the kingdom to its largest size since 1187, the gains would be dramatically reversed a few years later. On 15 July 1244, the city was reduced to ruins during the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|siege of Jerusalem]] and its Christians massacred by the [[Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246|Khwarazmian army]]. A few months later, the [[Battle of La Forbie]] permanently crippled Christian military power in the Holy Land. The sack of the city and the massacre which accompanied it encouraged [[Louis IX|Louis IX of France]] to organise the [[Seventh Crusade]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=574–576|loc=The Bane of Palestine}}