Crucifixion

=== In Islam ===
{{Further|Hirabah}}

Islam spread in a region where many societies, including the Persian and Roman empires, had used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels, robbers and criminal slaves.<ref name=EI2>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Vogel, F.E. | year= 2012 | title=Ṣalb |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs| doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6530 }}</ref> The Qur'an refers to crucifixion in six passages, of which the most significant for later legal developments is verse 5:33:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://irebd.com/quran/english/surah-5/verse-33/|title=Quran Surah Al-Maaida ( Verse 33 )|website=irebd.com|access-date=2018-01-27|archive-date=2018-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129004428/http://irebd.com/quran/english/surah-5/verse-33/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="EI2" />

{{Blockquote|The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Apostle, and strive with might and main for mischief through the land is: execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land: that is their disgrace in this world, and a heavy punishment is theirs in the Hereafter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quran.com/5|title=Surah Al-Ma'idah [5]|website=Surah Al-Ma'idah [5]}}</ref>}}

The corpus of [[hadith]] provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to [[Muhammad]] himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph [[Umar]] (applied to two slaves who murdered their mistress).<ref name="EI2" /> Classical Islamic jurisprudence applies the verse 5:33 chiefly to highway robbers, as a ''[[hadd]]'' (scripturally prescribed) punishment.<ref name="EI2" /> The preference for crucifixion over the other punishments mentioned in the verse or for their combination (which [[Sadakat Kadri]] has called "Islam's equivalent of the hanging, drawing and quartering that medieval Europeans inflicted on traitors")<ref name="kadri-218">{{cite book |last1=Kadri |first1=Sadakat |title=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ... |date=2012 |publisher=macmillan |isbn=978-0-09-952327-7 |page=241}}</ref> is subject to "complex and contested rules" in classical jurisprudence.<ref name="EI2" /> Most scholars required crucifixion for highway robbery combined with murder, while others allowed execution by other methods for this scenario.<ref name="EI2" /> The main methods of crucifixion are:<ref name="EI2" />

* Exposure of the culprit's body after execution by another method, ascribed to "most scholars"<ref name="EI2" /><ref name=peters>{{Cite book |first=Rudolph|last=Peters|year=2006|title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=37–38}}</ref> and in particular to [[Ibn Hanbal]] and [[Al-Shafi'i]];<ref name=EoF-taslib>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=الموسوعة الفقهية (Encyclopedia of Fiqh)|publisher=وزارة الأوقاف والشئون الإسلامية في دولة الكويت|url=https://archive.org/details/FPmfkmfk|language=ar|year=1988|volume=12|title=تصليب|trans-title=Taslib}}</ref> or [[Hanbali]]s and [[Shafi'i]]s.<ref name=EoF-hiraba>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=الموسوعة الفقهية (Encyclopedia of Fiqh)|publisher=وزارة الأوقاف والشئون الإسلامية في دولة الكويت|url=https://archive.org/details/FPmfkmfk|language=ar|year=1988|volume=17|title=حرابة|trans-title=Hiraba}}</ref>
* Crucifying the culprit alive, then executing him with a lance thrust or another method, ascribed to Malikis, most [[Hanafi]]s and most [[Twelver]] Shi'is;<ref name="EI2" /> the majority of the Malikis;<ref name="peters" /> [[Malik ibn Anas|Malik]], [[Abu Hanifa]], and [[Abd al-Rahman al-Awzai|al-Awza'i]];<ref name="EoF-taslib" /> or Malikis, Hanafis, and Shafi'is.<ref name="EoF-hiraba" />
* Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites.<ref name="peters" />

Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days.<ref name="EI2" /> Crucifixion involves affixing or impaling the body to a beam or a tree trunk.<ref name="EI2" /> Various minority opinions also prescribed crucifixion as punishment for a number of other crimes.<ref name="EI2" /> Cases of crucifixion under most of the legally prescribed categories have been recorded in the history of Islam, and prolonged exposure of crucified bodies was especially common for political and religious opponents.<ref name="EI2" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Anthony|first=Sean|title=Crucifixion and Death as Spectacle: Umayyad Crucifixion in Its Late Antique Context|url=https://www.academia.edu/3553404 |series=American Oriental Series 96 |publisher=American Oriental Society|access-date=13 December 2013|year=2014}}</ref>