Augustus

== Sole ruler of Rome ==
{{see also|Constitutional Reforms of Augustus|Propaganda in Augustan Rome}}
{{Further|Coinage reform of Augustus}}
After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire republic under an unofficial [[principate]]{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|pages=34-35}}—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|pages=24–25}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|pages=38–39}} Marching into Rome, Octavian and Agrippa were elected as [[Roman consul|consuls]] by the Senate.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=45}}

Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the [[Roman province]]s. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=44–45}}

=== First settlement ===
{{Main|Constitution of the Roman Empire|History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire}}

On 13 January 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=45–50}} Historian [[Werner Eck]] states:

{{Blockquote|The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his ''auctoritas'', which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=113}}}}

To a large extent, the public was aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the ''[[Aerarium|aerarium Saturni]]'', the public treasury.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=80}}
[[File:Statue de L'Empereur Auguste - MR 99 - Ma 1278.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Octavian as a magistrate. The statue's marble head was made {{circa}} 30–20&nbsp;BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD ([[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]], Paris).]]

According to historian [[Howard Hayes Scullard|H. H. Scullard]], however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and&nbsp;... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=211}} The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional [[constitution of the Roman Republic|constitution]]. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=46}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=210}} The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Cilicia]], Cyprus, and [[Ægyptus|Egypt]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=46}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=34}} Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=34}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=47}}

While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=47}} Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have a monopoly on political and martial power.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=24}} The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional [[Agriculture in ancient Rome|producer of grain]], as well as [[Illyria]] and [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], two strategic regions with several legions.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=24}} However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|pages=24–25}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=211}} The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican facade for the autocratic principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|pages=24–25}}

===Change to Augustus===
[[File:Augustus first century aureus obverse.png|thumb|[[Aureus]] minted {{circa}} AD 13, marked: "Caesar Augustus Divi F Pater Patriae"]]
On 16 January 27&nbsp;BC{{Refn|''[[Fasti Praenestini]]''<ref>[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae|InscrIt-13-02]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182420/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=InscrIt-13-02%2C+00017&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 00017]: ''XVII'' —[[Roman calendar|Kalendas Februarias]]— ''c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]''.</ref>''[[Feriale Cumanum]]''.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]] [http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375 8375] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013701/http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10,+08375 |date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto''".</ref> [[Ovid's Fasti]] gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".<ref>[[Ovid]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html 587-590] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013703/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html |date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[[Ides (calendar)|Id.]] [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum''".</ref> The 3rd century [[Censorinus|''De die Natali'']] gives 17 January, a mistake.<ref>[[Censorinus]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text*.html#21.8 XXI.8] : "''quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar''". The number is right, but the phrasing is not.</ref>}} the Senate gave Octavian the new title of ''[[Augustus (title)|augustus]]''.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=50}} ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''augere'' (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime".<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=50}} It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity.{{Sfn|Eder|2005||page=24}} His name of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus|the legendary founder of Rome]], which symbolized a second founding of Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=49}} The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=149}} The Senate also confirmed his position as ''[[princeps senatus]]'', which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9780192801463 |title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World |publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 |pages=858 |chapter=Princeps senatus |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345995 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=3, 149}} The honorific ''augustus'' was inherited by all future emperors and became the ''de facto'' main title of the emperor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Strothmann|first=Meret (Bochum)|date=1 October 2006|title=Augustus [2]|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040|journal=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hammond|first=Mason|author-link=Mason Hammond|year=1957|title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646|url-access=subscription|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome|volume=25|pages=29–31|doi=10.2307/4238646 |jstor=4238646 }}</ref> As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor".{{Efn|Ancient historians, however, often give him a rule of 56 years. None of them seem to agree on the exact start date, though.<ref>[[Josephus]] (1st century), ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Book II, 9] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209203545/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html |date=9 December 2021 }}. "Fifty-seven years, six months, and two days". 17&nbsp;February 44 BC; 15 March is probably intended.</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]] (121) ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 8., "With Antony alone for nearly twelve years, and finally by himself for forty-four." 56 years in total (from 43 BC).</ref><ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch|Theophilus]] (180–192), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 To Autolycus]'' XXVII {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207223048/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 |date=7 December 2021 }}. "56&nbsp;years 4 months 1 day". 18 April; referencing either his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'' (16 April) or, more likely, his victory at the [[Battle of Mutina]] (21 April).</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] (230). ''[[Historia Romana]]'' 56, 5. "Forty-four years lacking thirteen days." Dio is one of the few writers that reckons from the [[Battle of Actium]].</ref><ref>[[Jerome]] (4th century), ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]]'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html 184.2.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609023200/http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html |date=9 June 2012 }} "56 years and 6 months." February/March 43 BC; this incorrect calculation is followed by most later historians.</ref>}} Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27&nbsp;BC.<ref>''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1*.html# I.7], "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD&nbsp;14] I have been ''[[princeps senatus]]'' for forty years." </ref>{{efn|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1 (53.1)] indicates that he took the title ''princeps senatus'' in 28 BC. However, he also states that Augustus "added five years to his own terms as ''princeps'', since his ten-year period was about to expire (this was in the consulship of [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus|Publius]] and [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 18 BC)|Gnaeus Lentulus]] [18&nbsp;BC])" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#12 (54.12)], meaning that his official tenure as ''princeps'' began in 27&nbsp;BC.}}

Augustus styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''[[imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.{{efn|He was first proclaimed ''imperator'' on 16 April 43&nbsp;BC, after the [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]].{{sfn|Fishwick|2004|p=250}}}} He transformed ''Caesar'', a cognomen for one branch of the [[Julia gens|Julian family]], into a new family line that began with him.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=50}}

[[File:Arch of Augustus at Ariminum, dedicated to the Emperor Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, the oldest Roman arch which survives, Rimini, Italy (19948839545).jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Arch of Augustus (Rimini)|Arch of Augustus]] in [[Rimini]] ({{Lang|la|Ariminum}}), dedicated to Augustus by the [[Roman Senate]] in 27 BC, is one of the oldest preserved arches in Italy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=18 March 2021 |title=Arco d'Augusto |trans-title=Arch of Augustus |url=https://riminiturismo.it/visitatori/scopri-il-territorio/arte-e-cultura/archi-e-porte/arco-daugusto |access-date=16 January 2024 |website=riminiturismo.it |language=it |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116214941/https://riminiturismo.it/visitatori/scopri-il-territorio/arte-e-cultura/archi-e-porte/arco-daugusto |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Augustus was granted the right to hang the ''[[Civic Crown|corona civica]]'' (civic crown) above his door and to have laurels drape his doorposts.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=24}} However, he renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=13}} If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the [[Curia]], bearing the inscription ''virtus'', ''pietas'', ''clementia'', ''iustitia''—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=24}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=3}}

=== Second settlement ===
[[File:Roman - Portrait of Emperor Augustus - Walters 2321.jpg|thumb|upright|Portraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features.]]
By 23&nbsp;BC, some of the un-republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27&nbsp;BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his ''de facto'' dominance over the Roman political system and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=51}} Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the principate in his turn,{{Efn|He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=55}}}} alienating his three greatest supporters: Agrippa, [[Gaius Maecenas|Maecenas]], and Livia.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=294}} He appointed noted republican [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 23 BC)|Calpurnius Piso]] (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus{{Sfn|Davies|2010|page=259}}) as co-consul in 23&nbsp;BC, after his choice [[Aulus Terentius Varro Murena]] died unexpectedly.{{Sfn|Ando|2000|page=140}}{{Sfn|Raaflaub|Samons|1993|page=426}}{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}}

In the late spring Augustus had a severe illness and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the principate in some form,{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=295}} while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=25}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}} This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=38}}

Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|pages=38–39}} With regards to the principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;<ref name="Stern, Gaius p. 23">Stern, Gaius (2006), ''Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus's vision of a new world order in 13 BC'', p. 23</ref> nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor and that they should continue to obey Agrippa, constitutional procedure notwithstanding.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|pages=294–295}}{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}}

[[File:Cameo August BM Gem3577.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Blacas Cameo]] showing Augustus wearing a ''[[gorgoneion]]'' on a three layered [[sardonyx]] cameo, AD 20–50]]
Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2&nbsp;BC,{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}} both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.{{Sfn|Davies|2010|page=259}} This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=36}} Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular ''[[imperium]]'' not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the second settlement.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=57}}

The primary reasons for the second settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=56}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=37}} When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=56–57}}

A second problem later arose showing the need for the second settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus affair".{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=109}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=299}} In late 24 or early 23&nbsp;BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the [[Odrysian]] kingdom of [[Thrace]], whose king was a Roman ally.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}} He was defended by [[Lucius Licinius Varro Murena]] who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus ordering him to attack the client state.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=300}} Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius''—as Macedonia was a senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as princeps, instituting a form of monarchy&nbsp;– accusations that had already played out.<ref name="Stern, Gaius p. 23" />
[[File:Statue of the Emperor Octavian Augustus as Jupiter 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Augustus as [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD)]]

The situation was so serious that Augustus appeared at the trial even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=333}} Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his ''[[auctoritas]]''. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=333}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=300}}{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=108}} Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}}{{Sfn|Raaflaub|Samons|1993|page=426}}

The second settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general ''imperium proconsulare'', or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=57}} Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}}

=== Additional powers ===
During the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a [[Tribune of the plebs|tribune]] (''tribunicia potestas'') for life, though not the official title of tribune.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=57}} For some years, Augustus had been awarded ''tribunicia sacrosanctitas'', the immunity given to a [[tribune of the plebs]]. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]], a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=36}} This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=57–58}} Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the [[Roman censor]]; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=59}}

[[File:August com a "Pontifex maximus" (detall) (finals s. I aC), Museu Nacional Romà (Palau Massimo), Roma.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Via Labicana Augustus|Head of Augustus]] as ''[[pontifex maximus]]'', Roman artwork of the late Augustan period, last decade of the 1st century BC]]
With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic [[toga]] while entering the Forum.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=30}} There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=80}} Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the ''tribunus plebis'' began to lose its prestige due to Augustus's amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the [[praetor]]ship.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=427}}

Augustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome in addition to being granted proconsular ''imperium maius'' and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular "imperium" when they crossed the [[Pomerium]]—the sacred boundary of Rome—and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority, but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul, which meant that when he was in the city he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or ''auctoritas'', his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's ''imperium proconsulare maius'' (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=60}}

In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the [[legatus]] who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a senatorial province, Augustus's proconsular ''imperium maius'' allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a [[Roman triumph|triumph]], a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first king and first triumphant general.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=61}} [[Tiberius]], Augustus's eldest stepson by Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=117}}

Normally during republican times, the powers Augustus held even after the second settlement would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome/Augustan-art-and-literature#ref26662 Ancient Rome] at [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301021228/https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome/Augustan-art-and-literature#ref26662 |date=1 March 2021 }}</ref>

=== Conspiracy ===
[[File:Augustus MAN Napoli Inv6040.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A colossal statue of Augustus from the [[Sodales Augustales|Augusteum]] of [[Herculaneum]], seated and wearing a [[laurel wreath]]]]
Many of the political subtleties of the second settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the plebeian class, who were Augustus's greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus's participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22&nbsp;BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19&nbsp;BC, the people rioted in response and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#1 54.1], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#6 6], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#10 10]}}

Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22&nbsp;BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular ''imperium''", and ended the crisis almost immediately.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=26}} It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a ''[[praefectus annonae]]'', a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=78}}

There were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the second settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=109}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=299}} Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio.<ref>Swan, p. 241</ref>{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=483}} Murena, the outspoken consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus affair, was named among the conspirators. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict.{{Sfn|Wells|2004|page=53}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=301}} All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence.{{Sfn|Davies|2010|page=260}}{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=301}} Augustus ensured that the façade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.{{Sfn|Holland|2005|page=301}}

In 19&nbsp;BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of "general consular imperium", which was probably ''imperium consulare maius'', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=43}} In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=60}} as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the [[fasces]], an emblem of consular authority.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=43}} This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12&nbsp;BC, after the death of [[Lepidus]], he additionally took up the position of ''pontifex maximus'', the high priest of the college of the pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion.{{Efn|The date is provided by inscribed calendars.{{Sfn|Bowersock|1990|page=380}}<ref>see also Augustus, ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/2*.html#10 10.2]</ref>}}{{Efn|Dio reports this under 13&nbsp;BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died{{Sfn|Bowersock|1990|page=383}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=28}}}} On 5 February 2&nbsp;BC, Augustus was also given the title ''[[Pater Patriae|pater patriae]]'', or "father of the country".{{Sfn|Mackay|2004|page=186}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=129}}

=== Stability and staying power ===
[[File:Glyptothek München – 18.04.2022 – Augustus Bevilacqua (4).jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Augustus wearing the [[Civic Crown]], at [[Glyptothek]], Munich]]

A final reason for the second settlement was to give the principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who had several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life.<ref>[[The Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#81 81].</ref> If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of [[Battle of Pharsalus|Pharsalus]], the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus's power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|pages=337-338}} Augustus's accumulation of powers was now complete.

=== War and expansion ===
{{Main|Wars of Augustus}}
{{Further|Roman–Iranian relations|Augustus' Eastern policy}}

By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=93}}

Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet [[Virgil]] attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: ''tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento''{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=30}}—"Roman, remember to rule the Earth's peoples with authority!" The impulse for [[expansionism]] was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the ''[[Aeneid]]'', where Jupiter promises Rome ''imperium sine fine'', "sovereignty without end".{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=95}}

By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the [[Alps|Alpine]] regions of [[Raetia]] and [[Noricum]] (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Pannonia]] (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa Proconsularis]] to the east and south. [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]] was added to the [[Roman Syria|province of Syria]] when Augustus deposed [[Herod Archelaus]], successor to [[client state|client king]] [[Herod the Great]]. Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=94}}

[[File:Tiberius NyCarlsberg01.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Bust of [[Tiberius]], a successful military commander under Augustus who was designated as his heir and successor]]

Again, no military effort was needed in 25&nbsp;BC when [[Galatia]] (part of modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after [[Amyntas of Galatia]] was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=94}} The rebellious tribes of [[Asturias]] and [[Cantabria]] in modern-day Spain were [[Cantabrian Wars|finally quelled in 19&nbsp;BC]], and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and [[Lusitania]]. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus's future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at [[Las Médulas]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=97}}

[[File:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg|thumb|left|[[Muziris]] in the [[Chera Kingdom]] of [[Southern India]], as shown in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]], with depiction of a "Temple of Augustus" ("Templum Augusti"): an illustration of [[Indo-Roman relations]] in the period]]
Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16&nbsp;BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in [[Germania]] to the north.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=98}} [[Horace]] dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monumental [[Tropaeum Alpium|Trophy of Augustus]] near Monaco was built to honor the occasion.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=98–99}} The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12&nbsp;BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] [[Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)|moved against the Germanic tribes]] of the eastern [[Rhineland]]. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus's forces reached the [[Elbe]] River by 9&nbsp;BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=99}} It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=416}}

To protect Rome's eastern territories from the [[Parthian Empire]], Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial [[Buffer state|buffers]] and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=96}} Tiberius was responsible for restoring [[Tigranes V of Armenia|Tigranes V]] to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=416}}

Arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with [[Phraates IV]] of Parthia (37–2&nbsp;BC) in 20&nbsp;BC for the return of the [[Vexilloid|battle standards]] lost by [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] in the [[Battle of Carrhae]], a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=416}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=96}}{{Sfn|Brosius|2006|pages=96–97, 136–138}} Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus's defeat by military means.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=95–96}} However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] and in monuments such as the [[Forum of Augustus|Temple of Mars Ultor]] ('[[Mars (mythology)|Mars the Avenger]]') built to house the standards.{{Sfn|Brosius|2006|page=97}}{{Sfn|Bivar|1983|pages=66–67}} Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=96}} Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=13}} Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=96}}

[[File:Hermann (Arminius) at the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE by Peter Jannsen, 1873, with painting creases and damage removed.jpg|thumb|''Der siegreich vordringende Hermann'' (The Victorious Advancing [[Arminius|Hermann]]), depiction of the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]], by [[Peter Janssen]], 1873]]
A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in AD 9, where three entire legions led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] were destroyed by [[Arminius]], leader of the [[Cherusci]], an apparent Roman ally.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=101–102}} Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=417}} The Roman general [[Germanicus]] took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and [[Segestes]]; at the [[Battle of Idistaviso]] in AD 16, he defeated Arminius.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=31}}