Puerto Rico

====U.S. citizenship and Puerto Rican citizenship====
{{Main|Puerto Rican citizenship}}
In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] (popularly known as the Jones Act), which granted Puerto Ricans born on or after 25 April 1898 U.S. citizenship.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898 |first1=Sanford |last1=Levinson |first2=Bartholomew H. |last2=Sparrow |location=New York |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2005 |pages=166, 178 |quote=U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)) }}</ref> Opponents, including all the Puerto Rican House of Delegates (who voted unanimously against it), claimed the U.S. imposed citizenship to draft Puerto Rican men for [[American entry into World War I|America's entry into World War I]] the same year.<ref name="Gonzalez">Juan Gonzalez; ''Harvest of Empire'', pp. 60–63; Penguin Press, 2001; {{ISBN|978-0-14-311928-9}}</ref>

The Jones Act also provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislative assembly]], as well as a [[bill of rights]]. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four-year term.

[[File:Puerto Ricans in WWII.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|65th Infantry]] training at [[Camp Santiago]], Salinas, Puerto Rico (August 1941)]]

Natural disasters, including a major [[1918 San Fermín earthquake|earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] in 1918 and several [[hurricane]]s, as well as the [[Great Depression]], impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://redsismica.uprm.edu/spanish/tsunami/index.php |title=Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe |publisher=Red Sísmica de Puerto Rico |language=es |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123161343/http://redsismica.uprm.edu/Spanish/tsunami/index.php |archive-date=23 January 2011}}</ref> Some political leaders, such as [[Pedro Albizu Campos]], who led the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]], demanded a change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the [[University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus|University of Puerto Rico]] in 1935, in which [[Río Piedras massacre|four were killed]] by police.

In 1936, U.S. senator [[Millard Tydings]] introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico; he had previously co-sponsored the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]], which provided independence to the [[Philippines]] following a 10-year transition period of limited autonomy. While virtually all Puerto Rican political parties supported the bill, it was opposed by [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] of the [[Liberal Party of Puerto Rico]],<ref name="Gatell"/> leading to its defeat<ref name="Gatell">{{Cite journal |jstor = 2510353|title = Independence Rejected: Puerto Rico and the Tydings Bill of 1936|journal = The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume = 38|issue = 1|pages = 25–44|last1 = Gatell|first1 = Frank Otto|year = 1958|doi = 10.2307/2510353}}</ref>

In 1937, Albizu Campos' party organized a protest in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]]. The Insular Police, similar to the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]], opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike.<ref name=1937inquiry /> The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by U.S. Congressman [[Vito Marcantonio]] and confirmed by a report from the Hays Commission, which investigated the events, led by [[Arthur Garfield Hays]], counsel to the [[American Civil Liberties Union]].<ref name=1937inquiry>{{cite web |url=http://www.llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre,%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry,%201937 |title=Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission, 70p, np, May&nbsp;22, 1937 |publisher=Llmc.com |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214194610/http://llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre%2C%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry%2C%201937 |archive-date=14 December 2010 }}</ref> Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many shot in the back while running away.<ref name="5yrs">[http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html "Five Years of Tyranny", Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112031601/http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html |date=12 January 2012 }} The entire speech is contained in the ''Congressional Record'' of {{Nowrap|14 August}}, 1939. It is reported in the Congressional record, and various other publications elsewhere, that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who "was killed through the back while running to a nearby church"</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Antonio de la Cova |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/ponce-1937.htm |title=Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders running away |publisher=Latinamericanstudies.org |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123113117/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/ponce-1937.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action,<ref name="5yrs" /> and it has since become known as the [[Ponce massacre]]. In the aftermath, on 2 April 1943, Tydings introduced another bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico, though it was again defeated.<ref name="status" />

During the latter years of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]–[[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administrations, the internal governance of the island was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican-born governor, [[Jesús T. Piñero]].

Since 2007, the [[Puerto Rico Department of State]] has developed a protocol to issue certificates of [[Puerto Rican citizenship]] to Puerto Rican residents. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico, born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent, or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico.
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