Nelson Mandela

==== Robben Island: 1964–1982 ====
In 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on [[Robben Island]], remaining there for the next 18 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=165|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=262|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=75–78|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=307–308|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=204}} Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring {{convert|8|ft|m}} by {{convert|7|ft|m}}, with a straw mat on which to sleep.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=2004|1pp=79–80|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=279|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3p=205}} Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=166, 182|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=266|3a1=Mandela|3y=2004|3pp=82–84, 108–116|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=281–283, 290–291|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=206–207}} At night, he worked on his LLB degree, which he was obtaining from the [[University of London]] through a correspondence course with [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]], but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in [[solitary confinement]] on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=174|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2p=126|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=299|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=205, 258}} He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=102–108|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=283|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=205}}

[[File:RobbenIslandSteinbruchA.JPG|thumb|left|Lime quarry on Robben Island where Mandela and other prisoners were forced to carry out hard labour]]

The political prisoners took part in work and [[hunger strike]]s—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=175|2a1=Mandela|2y=2004|2pp=83, 90, 136–138|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=124|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=284, 296–298}} ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, [[Govan Mbeki]] and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group, named Ulundi, that represented all political prisoners (including [[Eddie Daniels (political activist)|Eddie Daniels]]) on the island, through which he forged links with PAC and [[Yu Chi Chan Club]] members.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=298–299|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=210–214}} Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=130–131|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=292–295|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=236–241, 288–294}}

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301, 313|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=232}} He also studied [[Afrikaans]], hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=295, 299–301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=229}} Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative [[Helen Suzman]] of the [[Progressive Party (South Africa)|Progressive Party]], who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1pp=301–302|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=221}} In September 1970, he met [[British Labour Party]] politician [[Denis Healey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=337|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=222}} South African Minister of Justice [[Jimmy Kruger]] visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=334|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=241}} His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=142, 145|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=303–304|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=246–247}} His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in [[Brandfort]] and remained unable to see him.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=192–194|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=306–307|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=287–288, 304–310|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=248–254, 302}}

From 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2010|1p=301|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=222, 235}} In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the [[South African Bureau of State Security]] (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=207–208|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=231}} In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=127–128|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=308–310|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=223–225}} He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1pp=128–129|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=226–227}}

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Physiological needs.jpg
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| image2 = Robben Island fængslet Sektion B.jpg
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| footer = The inside of Mandela's prison cell as it was when he was imprisoned in 1964 and his open cell window facing the prison yard on Robben Island, now a [[National heritage sites (South Africa)|national]] and [[World Heritage Site]]. Mandela's cell later contained more furniture, including a bed from around 1973.{{sfn|Hutton|1994|p=60}}
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By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=228}} which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]] and [[Desmond Tutu]].{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=314–315}} That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=268|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=139|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=317|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=242–243}} Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|pp=285–286}}

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by [[Steve Biko]] and the [[Black Consciousness Movement]] (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but, following the [[Soweto uprising]] of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1pp=186–188|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=304–306|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=324–327|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=259–276}} Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=135|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=327–328|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=277–283|4a1=Soudien|4y=2015|4pp=363–364}} Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday.{{sfn|Sampson|2011|p=296}} He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Award|Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding]] in India in 1979, and the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]], Scotland in 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=313, 314|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2pp=315–316}} In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist [[Percy Qoboza]], sparking an international campaign that led the [[UN Security Council]] to call for his release.{{sfnm|1a1=Lodge|1y=2006|1p=155|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=338–339|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=319–320}} Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its [[Cold War]] allies US president [[Ronald Reagan]] and British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher]]; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.{{sfnm|1a1=Barber|1y=2004|1p=24|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=321}}