John Calvin

==Theology==
{{main|Theology of John Calvin}}
{{See also|Calvin's view of Scripture|Augustine's influence on John Calvin|Covenant theology}}

Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most comprehensive expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion''. He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hesselink|2004|pp=74–75}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=4–9}}</ref> The various editions of that work spanned nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bouwsma|1988|p=9}}; {{Harvnb|Helm|2004|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|Hesselink|2004|pp=75–77}}</ref> The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters. The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's ''[[Loci Communes]]''. In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the [[Apostles' Creed]]. The final edition of the ''Institutes'' appeared in 1559. By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=4–10}}; {{Harvnb|De Greef|2004|pp=42–44}}; {{Harvnb|McGrath|1990|pp=136–144, 151–174}}; {{Harvnb|Cottret|2000|pp=110–114, 309–325}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|2006|pp=53–62, 97–99, 132–134, 161–164}}</ref>

[[File:CalvinInstitutio.jpg|thumb|left|Title page from the final edition of Calvin's ''magnum opus'', ''[[Institutio Christiane Religionis]]'', which summarises his theology.]]

The first statement in the ''Institutes'' acknowledges its central theme. It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=23–24}}; {{Harvnb|Hesselink|2004|pp=77–78}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=13–14}}</ref> Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, "For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher."<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|p=21}}</ref> He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as ''autopiston'' or self-authenticating. He defends the [[Trinitarianism|trinitarian]] view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that [[Religious image|images]] of God lead to idolatry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Steinmetz|1995|pp=59–62}}; {{Harvnb|Hesselink|2004|p=85}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=29–34}}</ref> John Calvin famously said "the human heart is a perpetual idol factory".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The human heart is an idol factory: a modern critique of John Calvin|url=https://postbarthian.com/2019/08/06/the-human-heart-is-an-idol-factory-a-modern-critique-of-john-calvin/|date=6 August 2019|website=The PostBarthian|language=en-US|access-date=8 May 2020}}</ref> At the end of the first book, he offers his views on [[Divine Providence|providence]], writing, "By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hesselink|2004|p=85}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|p=43}}</ref> Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practice, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=70–79}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|p=47}}</ref>

The second book includes several essays on [[original sin]] and the [[fall of man]], which directly refer to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], who developed these doctrines. He often cited the [[Church Fathers]] to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gerrish|2004|pp=290–291, 302}}. According to Gerrish, Calvin put his defence against the charge of novelty in the preface of every edition of the ''Institutes''. The original preface of the first edition was addressed to the King of France, Francis I. The defence expressed his opinion that patristic authority favoured the reformers and that allegation of the reformers deviating from the patristic consensus was a fiction. See also {{Harvnb|Steinmetz|1995|pp=122–137}}.</ref> In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of [[Adam]] and propagated to all of humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=80–88}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=50–57}}</ref> Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ. But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the [[Old Testament]]. God made a covenant with [[Abraham]], promising the coming of Christ. Hence, the [[Old Covenant]] was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise. Calvin then describes the [[New Covenant]] using the passage from the [[Apostles' Creed]] that describes Christ's suffering under [[Pontius Pilate]] and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=57–77}}</ref>

In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved. He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The immediate effects of faith are [[repentance]] and the remission of sin. This is followed by spiritual [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]], which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression. Complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=126–130}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=78–86}}</ref> Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of [[Sola fide|justification by faith alone]]. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace."<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=97–98}}</ref> In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=130–137}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=95–103}}</ref> Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of [[predestination]], a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]]. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included [[Thomas Aquinas]] and Martin Luther,<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|p=114}}</ref> though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heron|2005|p=243}}</ref> The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death."<ref>{{Harvnb|Calvin|1989|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.v.xxii.html Book III, Chapter 21, Par 5]}}</ref> Calvin believed that God's absolute decree was double predestination, but he also confessed that this was a ''horrible decree'': "The decree is dreadful indeed, I confess. (latin. ''"Decretum quidem horribile, fateor.''"; French. "''Je confesse que ce decret nous doit epouvanter.''")<ref>{{Cite web|title=John Calvin confessed Double Predestination is a Horrible and Dreadful Decree|url=https://postbarthian.com/2014/05/31/john-calvin-confessed-double-predestination-horrible-dreadful-decree/|date=31 May 2014|website=The PostBarthian|language=en-US|access-date=8 May 2020}}</ref>

The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and [[sacraments]]. He denied the [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal claim to primacy]] and the accusation that the reformers were [[Schism (religion)|schismatic]]. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic" or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers "had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ."<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|p=134}}; {{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=187–195}}</ref> The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from [[Ephesians]], and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors. Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva. Although Calvin respected the work of the [[ecumenical council]]s, he considered them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture. He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=135–144}}</ref>

Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: [[baptism]] and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|seven sacraments]]). He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of [[sacramental union]] in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. His own view was close to [[Theology of Huldrych Zwingli#Eucharist|Zwingli's symbolic view]], but it was not identical. Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament. In his words, the eucharistic rite was "a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express. I experience it rather than understand it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|Greengrass|1983|pp=34–42}}; {{Harvnb|McDonnell|1967|p=206}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1995|pp=147–157}}; {{Harvnb|Niesel|1980|pp=211–228}}; {{Harvnb|Steinmetz|1995|pp=172–173}}</ref>

===Controversies===
[[File:Joachim-Westphal.jpg|thumb|right|[[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]] disagreed with Calvin's theology on the eucharist.]]

Calvin's theology caused controversy. [[Pierre Caroli]], a Protestant minister in [[Lausanne]], accused Calvin, as well as Viret and Farel, of [[Arianism]] in 1536. Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in ''Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gamble|2004|p=199}}; {{Harvnb|Cottret|2000|pp=125–126}}</ref> In 1551 [[Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec]], a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin. Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin's death, wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin's character.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gamble|2004|pp=198–199}}; {{Harvnb|McGrath|1990|pp=16–17}}; {{Harvnb|Cottret|2000|pp=208–211}}</ref> In the following year, [[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]], a [[Gnesio-Lutheran]] pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements. Calvin's ''Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis'' (A Defense of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gamble|2004|pp=193–196}}; {{Harvnb|Parker|1975|p=163}}</ref> In 1556 [[Justus Velsius#Frankfurt: Disputation with Calvin|Justus Velsius]], a Dutch dissident, held a public [[disputation]] with Calvin during his visit to [[Frankfurt]], in which Velsius defended [[Free will in theology|free will]] against Calvin's doctrine of [[Predestination (Calvinism)|predestination]]. Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, [[Sebastian Castellio]], broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics. In Castellio's ''Treatise on Heretics'' (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology,<ref>{{Harvnb|Cottret|2000|pp=227–233}}</ref> and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ganoczy|2004|pp=17–18}}</ref>

===Calvin and the Jews===
Scholars have debated Calvin's view of the Jews and Judaism. Some have argued that Calvin was the least antisemitic among all the major reformers of his time, especially in comparison to Martin Luther.<ref>Elazar, Daniel J. (1995). ''Covenant and Commonwealth: Europe from Christian Separation through the Protestant Reformation, Volume II of the Covenant Tradition in Politics''. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.</ref> Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the antisemitic camp.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pater|1987|pp=256–296}}; {{Harvnb|Baron|1972|pp=343–344}}</ref> Scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between Calvin's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews. In his theology, Calvin does not differentiate between God's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant. He stated, "all the children of the promise, reborn of God, who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love, have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lange van Ravenswaay|2009|p=144}} quoting from Calvin, Institutes II.11.10</ref> Nevertheless, he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant.<ref>Pak, G. Sojin.'' John Calvin and the Jews: His Exegetical Legacy''. Reformed Institute of Metropolitan Washington, 2009, p. 25.</ref>

Most of Calvin's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical. For example, Calvin once wrote, "I have had much conversation with many Jews: I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness—nay, I have never found common sense in any Jew."<ref>Calvin's commentary of Daniel 2:44–45 translated by Myers, Thomas.''Calvin's Commentaries''. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1948, quoted in {{Harvnb|Lange van Ravenswaay|2009|p=146}}</ref> In this respect, he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day.<ref>{{Harvnb|Detmers|2006|p=199}}; {{Harvnb|Lange van Ravenswaay|2009|pp=143–146}}; {{Harvnb|Pak|2010|p=177}}</ref> Among his extant writings, Calvin dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in only one treatise,<ref>{{Harvnb|Pak|2010|p=3}}</ref> ''Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew''.<ref>''Ad Questiones et Obiecta Iudaei cuisdam Responsio Ioannis Calvini'' in [[Corpus Reformatorum|CR]] 37:653–674 and translated by R. Susan Frank in M. Sweetland Laver, ''Calvin, Jews, and Intra-Christian Polemics'' (PhD diss, Temple University, Philadelphia, 1987), pp. 220–261.</ref> In it, he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pak|2010|p=27}}</ref>