Augustus

==== War with Antony and Cleopatra ====
{{Main|War of Actium}}[[File:Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|''Anthony and Cleopatra'', by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]]
[[File:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|''The [[Battle of Actium]]'', by [[Laureys a Castro]], painted 1672, [[National Maritime Museum]], London]]
Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=29}} On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=29–30}} Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental [[Intimate relationship|paramour]]".{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=30}} In 36&nbsp;BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=20}}

Roman troops captured the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] in 34&nbsp;BC, and Antony made his son [[Alexander Helios]] the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title "[[King of Kings|Queen of Kings]]" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=30}} Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33&nbsp;BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's [[Donations of Alexandria|grants of titles and territories]] to his relatives and to his queen.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=31}}

The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32&nbsp;BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=32–34}} These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=34}} Octavian forcibly entered the [[Temple of Vesta|temple of the Vestal Virgins]] and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule and designated [[Alexandria]] as the site for a tomb for him and his queen.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=34–35}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|pages=21–22}} In late 32&nbsp;BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=35}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=22}}

[[File:Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII.jpg|thumb|This mid-1st-century-BC [[Pompeian Styles|Roman wall painting]] in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus, [[Pompeii]], is most likely a depiction of [[Cleopatra VII]] of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as [[Venus Genetrix (sculpture)|Venus Genetrix]], with her son [[Caesarion]] as [[cupid]], similar in appearance to the now-lost statue of Cleopatra erected by [[Julius Caesar]] in the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]] (within the [[Forum of Caesar]]). Its owner walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roller |first=Duane W. |title=Cleopatra: a biography |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536553-5 |page=175}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Susan |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0068246200000404 |title=Cleopatra in Pompeii? |date=2008 |series=Papers of the British School at Rome |volume=76 |pages=35, 42–44|doi=10.1017/S0068246200000404 |s2cid=62829223 |access-date=10 March 2018 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310091735/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0068246200000404}}</ref>]]
In early 31&nbsp;BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the [[Adriatic Sea]] under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern [[Corfu]]) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=37}}

Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of [[Actium]] on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the [[Blockade|naval blockade]]. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and [[Gaius Sosius]] in the [[Battle of Actium]] on 2 September 31&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=38}} Antony and his remaining forces were spared by a last-ditch effort from Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=38–39}}
[[File:Octavian aureus circa 30 BCE.jpg|thumb|[[Aureus]] of Octavian, {{circa}} 30&nbsp;BC, [[British Museum]]]]
A year later, Octavian [[Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)|defeated their forces]] in Alexandria on 1 August 30&nbsp;BC—after which [[Death of Cleopatra|Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide]]. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after by poisoning, contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an [[Asp (snake)|asp]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=39}} Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of the Greek philosopher [[Arius Didymus]] that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion killed while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|older son]].{{Sfn|Green|1990|page=697}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=171}} Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=49}}