Abrahamic religions

== Differences ==
{{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}}

=== God ===
{{Main |God in Abrahamic religions |God in Judaism |God in Christianity |God in Islam |God in the Baháʼí Faith}}
{{Further |Yahweh |Tetragrammaton |El (deity) |Elohim |Names of God in Judaism |Names of God in Christianity |Names of God in Islam}}
The [[conception of God]] as universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} The Abrahamic God is conceived of as [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal]], [[omnipotent]], [[omniscient]] and as the [[Creator deity|creator of the universe]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, [[omnibenevolence]], and [[omnipresence]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]], but at the same time [[personal God|personal]] and involved, listening to [[prayer]] and reacting to the actions of his creatures. God in Abrahamic religions is always referred to as [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] only.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}}

[[File:JudaismSymbol.PNG |thumb |right |The [[Star of David]] (or ''Magen David'') is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.]]
[[Jewish theology]] is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable [[being]] who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]], who is the guide of the world, delivered [[Israelites|Israel]] from [[The Exodus|slavery in Egypt]], and gave them the [[613 Mitzvot]] at [[Mount Sinai]] as described in the [[Torah]].

The [[national god]] of the [[Israelite]]s has a [[Theonym|proper name]], written ''[[YHWH|Y-H-W-H]]'' ({{lang-he|יהוה|}}) in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]]. The etymology of the name is unknown.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=[[NYU Press]] |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-0-8147-3706-4 |page=236 |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051853/https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |url-status=live}}</ref> An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "[[I Am that I Am]]", ({{lang-he |אהיה אשר אהיה}} ''’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye''), seemingly connecting it to the verb ''hayah'' (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including [[Elohim]], [[El Shaddai|Shaddai]], and [[Sabaoth]].

[[File:Christianity Symbol.png |thumb |right |The [[Christian cross]] (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.]]
In [[Christian theology]], God is the [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal being]] who [[Genesis creation narrative|created]] and [[Divine providence|preserves]] the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and [[immanent]] (involved in the world).{{sfn |Leith |1993 |pp=55–56}}{{sfn |Erickson |2001 |pp=87–88}} [[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God were expressed in the [[Pauline Epistles]] and the early{{efn |Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} [[creed]]s, which proclaimed one God and the [[Son of God|divinity of Jesus]].

Around the year 200, [[Tertullian]] formulated a version of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the [[First Council of Constantinople|Ecumenical Council of 381]].{{sfn|Prestige|1963|p=29}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=119}} Trinitarians, who form the large majority of [[Christians]], hold it as a core tenet of their faith.{{sfn |Mills |Bullard |2001 |p=935}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=23}} [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian]] denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.{{sfn |McGrath |2012 |pp=117–120}}

The theology of the [[Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes and nature of God]] has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."{{sfn |Osborn |2001 |pp=27–29}} In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.{{sfn |Dyrness |Kärkkäinen |Martinez |Chan |2008 |pp=352–353}} As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the [[Lord's Prayer]], stating that the [[God the Father|Father]] is in [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]]), others based on theological reasoning.{{sfn |Guthrie |1994 |pp=100, 111}}<ref name="Hirschberger">Hirschberger, Johannes. ''Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona'': Herder 1977, p.&nbsp;403</ref>

[[File:IslamSymbolAllahComp.PNG |thumb |right |The word [[God]] written in [[Arabic]]]]

In [[Islamic theology]], God ({{lang-ar |{{large |الله}}}} ''[[Allāh|{{transliteration |ar |ALA |Allāh}}]]'') is the [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[Omniscience|all-knowing]] creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |title=God and his Attributes |website=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_eqcom_00075}}</ref> In contrast to the Judeo-Christian tradition, which depicts God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.<ref name="ReferenceB">David Leeming ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}} page 209</ref> Islam emphasizes that God is singular (''[[tawhid|{{transliteration |ar |ALA |tawḥīd}}]]''){{sfn |Esposito |1999 |p=88}} unique (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |wāḥid}}'') and inherently One (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |aḥad}}''), all-merciful and omnipotent.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Allah |volume=01 |pages=686–687}}</ref> According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Islam |volume=14 |page=873}}</ref> and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."<ref>{{cite quran |6 |103 |style=ns}}</ref> God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.<ref>{{cite quran |29 |46 |style=ns}}</ref>{{sfn |Peters |2003 |p=4}} Islamic tradition also describes the [[Names of God in the Qur'an|99 names of God]]. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in [[Sura|chapter]] 112 of the Quran titled [[Al-Ikhlas]], which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."{{cite quran |112 |1 |4}}

=== Salvation ===
Christianity teaches [[Original Sin]], the doctrine that humanity is inherently sinful since the [[fall of Adam]].<ref>Vawter, Bruce (1983). "Original Sin". In Richardson, Alan; Bowden, John (eds.). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664227487.</ref> Accordingly, [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation from death, suffering, and evil, the consequence of mankind's sinful nature]], can only be brought by [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Death]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]]<ref>Murray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2012), "Philosophy and Christian Theology", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Since humans obeyed the Devil by comitting sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the [[Devil in Christianity|Devil]] has authority over humans.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1.</ref> Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible: <blockquote>"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021">Абдрасилов, Турганбай, Жахангир Нурматов, and Кайнар Калдыбай. "AN ANALYSIS OF SALVATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM." Аль-Фараби 76.4 (2021).</ref></blockquote> Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message: <blockquote>"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/>(Isaiah 12:2)</blockquote> Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:<blockquote>"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/></blockquote> In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith.

Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 8-9">Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 8-9</ref> Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (''tawbah'').<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/>

There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of [[Adam in Islam|Adam]] is interpreted as an [[allegory]] for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.<ref>Stieglecker, H. (1962). Die Glaubenslehren des Islam. Deutschland: F. Schöningh. p. 194 (German)</ref> Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 8-9"/>  Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/> The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture: <blockquote>"Indeed,  Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)</blockquote>

Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (''shayāṭīn'') are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.<ref>Jabbour, Nabeel (2014), The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross: Insights from an Arab Christian, London: Omnibus Press, ISBN 978-1-61521-512-6</ref> Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/> <blockquote>"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/></blockquote> The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an accuser, but a tempter.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41">Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 41</ref> According to the Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/> According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will: <blockquote>"For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).<ref>translation by  Saheeh International</ref><ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/></blockquote> The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/>

=== Circumcision ===
{{See also |Religious male circumcision |Brit milah |Khitan (circumcision) |Circumcision controversy in early Christianity |History of circumcision}}
[[File:Brit mila.jpg |thumb |Preparing for a Jewish [[Brit milah|ritual circumcision]].]]
Judaism and [[Samaritanism]] commands that [[brit milah|males be circumcised]] when they are eight days old,{{sfn |Mark |2003 |pp=94–95}} as does the [[Sunnah]] in [[Khitan (Circumcision)|Islam]]. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be ''[[sunnah]]'' (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Šakūrzāda |author1-first=Ebrāhīm |author2-last=Omidsalar |author2-first=Mahmoud |date=October 2011 |title=Circumcision |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |url-status=live |volume=V/6 |pages=596–600 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119024047/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |archive-date=19 January 2020 |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called ''khitan'') is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, many [[Christian denominations]] are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394}} [[Western Christianity]] replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of [[baptism]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kohler |first1=Kaufmann |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |title=Baptism |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=31 August 2022 |quote="According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a [[proselyte]] to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p.&nbsp;70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the [[Laying on of hands|imposition of hands]], which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. [[Anointing]] with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120817/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |url-status=live }}</ref> a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes [[Baptism by immersion|immersion]], [[aspersion]], or [[anointment]] with water. The [[Early Church]] (Acts 15, the [[Council of Jerusalem]]) decided that [[Gentile Christians]] are not required to undergo circumcision. The [[Council of Florence]] in the 15th century<ref>[http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816052624/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ |date=16 August 2006 }}. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref><ref>Dietzen, John. [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ "The Morality of Circumcision"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810070559/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ |date=10 August 2006 }}, The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision. |website=catholicdoors.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers |website=Catholic.com |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Michelle |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-allowed |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> The [[New Testament]] chapter [[Council of Jerusalem|Acts 15]] records that Christianity did not require circumcision. The [[Catholic Church]] currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision,{{sfn |Slosar |O'Brien |2003 |pp=62–64}} and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th [[Council of Florence]].{{sfn|Eugenius IV|1990}} [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christians]] practice circumcision as a rite of passage.<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051012/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]] and the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Adams |Adams |2012 |pp=291–298}}
[[Image:Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes.jpg |thumb |right |[[Copts|Coptic]] Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes]]
Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]] have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among [[Christians|Christian communities]] in the [[Anglosphere |Anglosphere countries]], [[Oceania]], [[South Korea]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{harvp|Gruenbaum|2015|p=61|ps=: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."}}; {{harvp|Peteet|2017|pp=97–101|ps=: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."}}; {{harvp|Ellwood|2008|p=95|ps=: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |title=Circumcision protest brought to Florence |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |date=30 March 2008 |quote="However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage." |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928020456/https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |url-status=live}}</ref> Countries such as the United States,<ref>Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.today/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.</ref> the [[Philippines]], [[Australia]] (albeit primarily in the older generations),<ref name="Richters 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 |s2cid=24396989 }}</ref> [[Canada]], [[Cameroon]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Kenya]], and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLOS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archive-date=9 March 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |title=Circumcision amongst the Dogon |access-date=3 September 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |archive-date=16 January 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of [[Oceania]].<ref name="Associated Press" /> In some [[Christianity in Africa|African]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian denominations]] male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394 |loc="For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty."}} [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christianity]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodoxy]] still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a [[rite of passage]].<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120244/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> Male circumcision is also widely practiced among [[Christians]] from [[South Korea]], [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Israel]], and [[North Africa]]. (See also [[aposthia]].)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the ''fitrah'', or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |title=Male Circumcision in Islam |first=Muslim Information Service of |last=Australia |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129055454/http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Circumcision is widely practiced by the [[Druze]], the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,{{sfn|Ubayd |2006 |p=150}} and has no religious significance in the [[Druze]] faith.{{sfn|Jacobs |1998 |p=147 }}{{sfn|Silver |2022 |p=97 }} Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".{{sfn|Betts |2013 |p=56 }}

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.{{sfn|Hassall |2022 |pp=591–602 }}

=== Proselytism ===
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit [[missionary|missionaries]] since the end of the [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple era]]. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following [[Noahide Laws]], a set of moral imperatives that, according to the [[Talmud]], were given by God{{efn |According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry ''Ben Noah'', page 349), most [[Rishonim|medieval authorities]] consider that all seven commandments were given to [[Adam]], although [[Maimonides]] ([[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.}} as a binding set of laws for the "children of [[Noah]]"—that is, all of humanity.<ref>Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry ''Ben Noah'', introduction) states that after the giving of the [[Torah]], the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, [[Sanhedrin]] 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.</ref>{{efn |Compare {{bibleverse | |Genesis |9:4–6 |HE}}.}} It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.<ref name="Times Atlas">{{cite book |trans-title=[[The Times Atlas of World History]] |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |editor-link=Geoffrey Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103 |language=nl}}</ref>

[[Moses Maimonides]], one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than [[Noahide]] laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.{{sfn|Kornbluth|2003|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} ''See also [[Conversion to Judaism]].''

[[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg |thumb |''The [[Sermon on the Mount]]'' by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]] (1877)]]
Christianity encourages [[evangelism]]. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send [[missionary|missionaries]] to non-Christian communities throughout the world. ''See also [[Great Commission]]''. [[Forced conversion]]s to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the [[Constantine I turn against Paganism|conversions of the pagans after Constantine]]; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the [[Crusades]]; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by [[Hernán Cortés]]. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the [[Reformation]], especially in England and Ireland (see [[recusancy]] and [[Popish plot]]).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to [[Pope Paul VI]], "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."<ref>Pope Paul VI. [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html "Declaration on Religious Freedom"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965.</ref> The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]].<ref name="Pullella 2015-12-10">{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |access-date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112060659/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Dawah]] is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. [[Mosques]] and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In [[Islamic theology]], the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim [[Ummah]], or community of Muslims.