Science

==Branches==
{{Main|Branches of science}}
Modern science is commonly divided into three major [[Branches of science|branch]]es: [[natural science]], [[social science]], and [[formal science]].<ref name="cohen2021"/> Each of these branches comprises various specialized yet overlapping scientific [[Academic discipline|disciplines]] that often possess their own [[nomenclature]] and expertise.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/|title= Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms|date= March 7, 2007|work= Seed Magazine|access-date= November 4, 2016|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/|archive-date= November 1, 2016}}</ref> Both natural and social sciences are [[empirical science]]s,<ref name="Bunge1998">{{cite book| title = Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory | last = Bunge | first = Mario Augusto | year = 1998 | publisher = Transaction Publishers | isbn = 978-0-7658-0413-6 | page = 24}}</ref> as their knowledge is based on [[Empirical evidence|empirical observations]] and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<ref name="popper2002a">{{cite book | last=Popper | first=Karl R. | year=2002a | chapter = A survey of some fundamental problems | title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery | url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 | url-access=limited | orig-date=1959 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 | publisher=Routledge Classics | location=New York | isbn=978-0-415-27844-7 | oclc=59377149 }}</ref>

=== Natural science ===
[[Natural science]] is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: [[list of life sciences|life science]] and [[Outline of physical science|physical science]]. These two branches may be further divided into more specialized disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[astronomy]], and [[earth science]]. Modern natural science is the successor to the [[natural philosophy]] that began in [[Ancient Greece]]. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] debated the benefits of using approaches which were more [[mathematical physics|mathematical]] and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, [[conjecture]]s, and [[presupposition]]s, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.<ref name="Gauch2003">{{cite book | last = Gauch | first = Hugh G. Jr. | chapter = Science in perspective | title = Scientific Method in Practice | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, United Kingdom | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 | pages = 21–73 | isbn = 978-0-521-01708-4 | year = 2003 | access-date = September 3, 2018 | archive-date = December 25, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201225200202/https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 | url-status = live }}</ref> Systematic data collection, including [[discovery science]], succeeded [[natural history]], which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.<ref name="Oglivie2008">{{cite book | last = Oglivie | first = Brian W. | year = 2008 | chapter = Introduction | title = The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe | pages = 1–24 | edition = Paperback | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.<ref name="Wordnet definition">{{cite web|title=Natural History|url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history|publisher=Princeton University WordNet|access-date=October 21, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history|archive-date=March 3, 2012}}</ref>

=== Social science ===
[[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|[[Supply and demand]] curve in economics, crossing over at the optimal equilibrium|alt=Two curve crossing over at a point, forming a X shape]]
[[Social science]] is the study of human behavior and functioning of societies.<ref name="colanderhunt2019"/><ref name="nisbetgreenfeld2021"/> It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to [[anthropology]], economics, history, [[human geography]], [[political science]], [[psychology]], and sociology.<ref name = colanderhunt2019 /> In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing [[research program]]s such as the [[Structural functionalism|functionalists]], [[conflict theories|conflict theorists]], and [[interactionism|interactionists]] in sociology.<ref name = colanderhunt2019 /> Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the [[historical method]], [[case study|case studies]], and [[cross-cultural studies]]. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.<ref name = colanderhunt2019 />

=== Formal science ===
[[Formal science]] is an area of study that generates knowledge using [[formal system]]s.<ref name="wluniversity2021">{{cite web | url = https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences | title = Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University | website = Washington and Lee University | access-date = May 14, 2021 | quote = A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science.  Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. | archive-date = May 14, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="löwe2002"/><ref name="rucker2019"/> A formal system is an [[abstract structure]] used for inferring [[theorem]]s from [[axiom]]s according to a set of rules.<ref>{{Cite web |title=formal system |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-system |access-date=May 30, 2022 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=April 29, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429174130/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034889/formal-system |url-status=live }}</ref> It includes mathematics,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity|journal=Synthese|volume=133 |pages=5–11| doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028|year=2002|last1=Löwe|first1=Benedikt|s2cid=9272212}}</ref> [[systems theory]], and [[theoretical computer science]]. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts.<ref name="Fetzer2013"/><ref name="Bill2007">{{cite book |first=Thompson | last = Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="popper2002a" /> The formal sciences are therefore [[A priori and a posteriori|''a priori'']] disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science.<ref name="Bishop1991"/><ref name="Bunge 1998">{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |date=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. [[Calculus]], for example, was initially invented to understand [[Motion (physics)|motion]] in physics.<ref name="MujumdarandTejinder2016">{{Cite book | last1 = Mujumdar | first1 = Anshu Gupta | last2 = Singh | first2 = Tejinder | year = 2016 | chapter = Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics | title = Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics | editor-first1 = Anthony | editor-last1 = Aguirre | editor-first2 = Brendan | editor-last2 = Foster | edition =  | series = The Frontiers Collection | pages = 201–218 | location = Switzerland | publisher = SpringerNature | isbn = 978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include [[mathematical physics]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=October 3, 2006 |access-date=October 3, 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> [[mathematical chemistry|chemistry]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Restrepo|first=G.|chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline|title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry|editor-last1=Scerri|editor-first1=E.|editor-last2=Fisher|editor-first2=G.|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, UK|year=2016|pages=332–351|isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en&|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=June 10, 2021 }}</ref> [[mathematical biology|biology]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology|publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath|url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=September 23, 2018 |access-date=June 7, 2018}}</ref> [[mathematical finance|finance]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=September 1, 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=March 1, 2021 |work=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[mathematical economics|economics]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Varian|first=Hal|author-link=Hal Varian|year=1997|chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory?|editor-last1=D'Autume|editor-first1=A.|editor-last2=Cartelier|editor-first2=J.|title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science?|publisher=Edward Elgar}} [http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=June 25, 2006 }}. Retrieved April 1, 2008.</ref>

=== Applied science ===
[[Applied science]] is the use of the [[scientific method]] and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine.<ref name="abraham2004">{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–04 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="mbunge1966" /> Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies.<ref name="cambridgedictionary">{{cite web | url = https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering | title = Cambridge Dictionary | publisher = Cambridge University Press | access-date = March 25, 2021 | archive-date = August 19, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering | url-status = live }}</ref> Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1994-09-01 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |language=en |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333}}</ref> Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the [[prevention (medical)|prevention]], [[Medical diagnosis|diagnosis]], and [[therapy|treatment]] of injury or disease.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |location=Oxford |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806|pmc=1071282 }}</ref> The applied sciences are often contrasted with the [[basic science]]s, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.<ref name="Davis">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471|postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref name="McCormick">{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref>

[[Computational science]] applies [[Computer simulation|computing power to simulate]] real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of [[machine learning]] and [[artificial intelligence]] is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science for example in [[agent-based computational economics]], [[random forest]]s, [[topic model]]ing and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446|url=https://osf.io/adxb3/download }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=September 25, 2021 |access-date=September 25, 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref>

=== Interdisciplinary science ===
[[Interdisciplinarity|Interdisciplinary science]] involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |jstor=23767672}}</ref> such as [[bioinformatics]], a combination of biology and computer science<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |vauthors=Moody G |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration|page=vii|publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref> or [[cognitive science]]s. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek and it became popular again in the 20th century.<ref name="ausburg">{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref>