Paul Kagame

==Presidency==
===Accession===
In the late 1990s, Kagame began to disagree publicly with Bizimungu and the Hutu-led government in Rwanda.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=220, 240–241}} Kagame accused Bizimungu of corruption and poor management,{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=221–222}} while Bizimungu felt that he had no power over appointments to the cabinet and that the [[Transitional National Assembly of Rwanda|Transitional National Assembly]] was acting purely as a puppet for Kagame.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=241}} Bizimungu resigned from the presidency in March 2000.{{sfn|BBC News (III)|2000}} Historians generally believe that Bizimungu was forced into resigning by Kagame after denouncing the National Assembly and attempting to sow discord within the RPF.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=241}}{{sfn|Caplan|2018|p=161}} However, Kagame told Kinzer that he was surprised by the development saying that he had received the "startling news" in a phone call from a friend.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=224}} Following Bizimungu's resignation, the [[Supreme Court of Rwanda|Supreme Court]] ruled that Kagame should become acting president until a permanent successor was chosen.{{sfn|IRIN (I)|2000}}

Kagame had been de facto leader since 1994, but focused more on military, foreign affairs and the country's security than day-to-day governance. By 2000, the threat posed by cross-border rebels was reduced and when Bizimungu resigned, Kagame decided to seek the presidency himself.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=220}} The transitional constitution was still in effect, which meant the president was elected by government ministers and the Transitional National Assembly rather than by a [[direct election]].{{sfn|United Nations (V)}}

The RPF selected two candidates, Kagame and RPF secretary general [[Charles Murigande]]; the ministers and parliament elected Kagame by eighty-one votes to three.{{sfn|BBC News (IV)|2000}} Kagame was sworn in as president in April 2000.{{sfn|BBC News (V)|2000}} Several Hutu politicians, including the prime minister [[Pierre-Célestin Rwigema]], left the government at around the same time as Bizimungu, leaving a cabinet dominated by those close to Kagame.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=224}} Bizimungu started his own party in 2001, but Kagame's government banned it on the grounds that political campaigning was not permitted under the transitional constitution. The following year, Kagame issued a public statement to Bizimungu, warning him that the government's patience with his continued involvement in party politics was "not infinite",<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=Former Rwandan pres arrested |author= |agency=[[South African Press Association]] and [[Associated Press]] |work=[[News24 (website)|News24]] |date=21 April 2002 |access-date=18 August 2021 |url= https://www.news24.com/news24/former-rwandan-pres-arrested-20020421}}</ref> and Bizimungu was arrested two weeks later{{sfn|IRIN (V)|2002}} and convicted of corruption and inciting ethnic violence, charges which human rights groups said were politically motivated.{{sfn|Asiimwe|2007}} He was imprisoned until 2007, when he was [[Prerogative of mercy (Rwanda)|pardoned]] by Kagame.{{sfn|BBC News (VI)|2007}}

===New constitution===
{{main|Constitution of Rwanda}}
Between 1994 and 2003, Rwanda was governed by a set of documents combining President Habyarimana's 1991 constitution, the Arusha Accords, and some additional protocols introduced by the transitional government.{{sfn|Gasamagera|2007|pp=1–2}} As required by the accords, Kagame set up a constitutional commission to draft a new permanent constitution.{{sfn|Gasamagera|2007|p=3}} The constitution was required to adhere to a set of fundamental principles including equitable power sharing and democracy.{{sfn|Gasamagera|2007|p=4}} The commission sought to ensure that the draft constitution was "home-grown", relevant to Rwanda's specific needs, and reflected the views of the entire population; they sent questionnaires to civil groups across the country and rejected offers of help from the international community, except for financial assistance.{{sfn|Gasamagera|2007|pp=5–6}}

The draft constitution was released in 2003; it was approved by the parliament, and was then put to a referendum in May of that year.{{sfn|BBC News (VII)|2003}} The referendum was widely promoted by the government; ultimately, {{Percentage|95|100|0}} of eligible adults registered to vote and the turnout on voting day was {{Percentage|87|100|0}}.{{sfn|Economist|2003}} The constitution was overwhelmingly accepted, with {{Percentage|93|100|0}} voting in favour.{{sfn|Economist|2003}} The constitution provided for a two-house parliament, an elected president serving seven-year terms, and multi-party politics.{{sfn|Economist|2003}} 

The constitution also sought to prevent Hutu or Tutsi hegemony over political power.{{sfn|Economist|2003}} Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any other division which may give rise to discrimination".{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 54}} According to Human Rights Watch, this clause, along with later laws enacted by the parliament, effectively make Rwanda a [[one-party state]], as "under the guise of preventing another genocide, the government displays a marked intolerance of the most basic forms of dissent".{{sfn|Roth|2009}}

===Elections and referendum===
Since ascending to the presidency in 2000, Kagame has faced three [[Elections in Rwanda|presidential elections]], in 2003, 2010 and 2017. On each occasion, he was re-elected in a landslide, winning more than 90 percent of the vote.{{sfn|shadmin|2017}} A constitutional amendment referendum in 2015, which gave Kagame the ability to stand for additional terms, also passed by similar margins.{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} International election monitors, human rights organisations and journalists generally regard these elections as lacking freedom and fairness, with interventions by the Rwandan state to ensure Kagame's victory.{{sfn|Caplan|2018|p=161}}{{sfn|Department of State (II)|2017}}{{sfn|Human Rights Watch (IV)|2017}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2017}} According to Ida Sawyer, Central Africa director for Human Rights Watch, "Rwandans who have dared raise their voices or challenge the status quo have been arrested, forcibly disappeared, or killed, independent media have been muzzled, and intimidation has silenced groups working on civil rights or free speech". Following the 2017 poll, Human Rights Watch released evidence of irregularities by election officials including forcing voters to write their votes in full view and casting votes for electors who had not appeared.{{sfn|Human Rights Watch (IV)|2017}} The [[United States Department of State]] said it was "disturbed by irregularities observed during voting" as well as "long-standing concerns over the integrity of the vote-tabulation process".{{sfn|Department of State (III)|2017}}

In their 2018 book ''How to Rig an Election'', political scientists [[Nic Cheeseman]] and [[Brian Klaas]] said they were asked by journalists why Kagame went "through the motions of organizing a national poll that he was predestined to win". The book gave likely reasons for the continuation of the polls, including the fact that elections are "important to secure a base level of international legitimacy" and that "not even pretending to hold elections will get a country kicked out of the African Union".{{sfn|Cheeseman|Klaas|2018|pp=214–215}} Law professor and human rights researcher Lars Waldorf wrote that the RPF's manipulation of polls could be designed to make itself appear stronger. Waldorf said that the party's margins of victory "are not meant to be convincing; rather, they are meant to signal to potential opponents and the populace that Kagame and the RPF are in full control."{{sfn|Waldorf|2017|p=83}} Scholars are divided on whether Kagame would have won the elections had he not used manipulative tactics. Writing about RPF intimidation of opposition candidates in the run-up to elections, Caplan said "what was most infuriating was that none of this was necessary for the RPF to hold on to power". Belgian academic [[Filip Reyntjens]] disagrees, however, stating that "the RPF is fully aware that opening up the political system would eventually lead to a loss of power".{{sfn|Reyntjens|2011}}

====Presidential election, 2003====
{{main|2003 Rwandan presidential election}}
The first post-genocide election was held in August 2003, following the adoption of the new constitution.{{sfn|BBC News (VIII)|2003}} In May, the parliament voted to ban the [[Republican Democratic Movement]] (MDR), following a parliamentary commission report accusing the MDR of "divisive" ideology.{{sfn|IRIN (II)|2003}} The MDR had been one of the coalition parties in the transitional government of national unity, and was the second-largest party in the country after the RPF.{{sfn|BBC News (IX)|2003}} [[Amnesty International]] criticised this move, claiming that "the unfounded allegations against the individuals mentioned in the report appear to be part of a government-orchestrated crackdown on the political opposition".{{sfn|Amnesty International (I)|2003}} Kagame was the RPF candidate, while former prime minister Twagiramungu was his main challenger. Twagiramungu had intended to run as the candidate for the MDR, but instead sought the presidency as an independent following the party's banishment.{{sfn|IRIN (III)|2003}} He returned to the country from Europe in June 2003 and began campaigning in August.{{sfn|IRIN (III)|2003}}{{sfn|BBC News (X)|2003}}

Kagame declared victory in the election one day after the poll,{{sfn|Beaver County Times|2003}} and his win was later confirmed by the National Electoral Commission.{{sfn|Nunley}} The final results showed that Kagame received {{Percentage|951|1000|1|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}} of the vote, Twagiramungu {{Percentage|36|1000|1|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}}, and the third candidate, Jean Nepomuscene Nayinzira, {{Percentage|13|1000|1|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}}; the voter turnout was {{Percentage|966|1000|1|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}}.{{sfn|Nunley}} The campaign, election day, and aftermath were largely peaceful, although an observer from the [[European Union]] (EU) raised concerns about intimidation of opposition supporters by the RPF.{{sfn|Reuters (I)|2003}} Twagiramungu rejected the result of the election and also questioned the margin of victory, saying "Almost 100 per cent? That's not possible".{{sfn|Reuters (I)|2003}} He filed a petition at the Supreme Court to nullify the result, but was unsuccessful and he left Rwanda shortly afterwards, fearing that he would be arrested.{{sfn|IRIN (IV)|2003}}{{sfn|Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada|2006}} The EU observer also questioned the result, citing "numerous irregularities", but also describing the poll as a "positive step" in the country's history.{{sfn|CPJ|2004}}

====Presidential election, 2010====
{{main|2010 Rwandan presidential election}}
[[File:Paul Kagame New York 2010.jpg|thumb|Kagame in 2010|upright|alt=Close up photo of Paul Kagame smiling at the premiere of the film Earth Made of Glass]]
Kagame ran for re-election in 2010, at the end of his first elected term.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=articles 100–101}}{{sfn|Ross|2010}} He was endorsed by the RPF national congress as their candidate in May 2010, and was accepted as a candidate in July.{{sfn|Kagire|Straziuso|2010}} His highest-profile opponent was [[Victoire Ingabire]], a Hutu who had been living abroad for some years, and returned to Rwanda in January 2010 to run for the presidency.{{sfn|Kagire|Straziuso|2010}} After a series of criticisms of Kagame's policies, she was arrested in April and prohibited from running in the election,{{sfn|Whewell|2010}}{{sfn|New Times (I)|2010}} as part of what Amnesty International's Tawanda Hondora described as "pre-electoral repression".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2010/08/pre-election-attacks-rwandan-politicians-and-journalists-condemned/ |date=5 August 2010 |title=Pre-election attacks on Rwandan politicians and journalists condemned |author=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> Kagame began his campaign with a rally at Kigali's [[Amahoro Stadium]] on 20 July,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kagame kicks off re-election campaign |author=Radio France Internationale |author-link=Radio France Internationale |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=12 August 2021 |url= https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20100720-kagame-kicks-re-election-campaign}}</ref> and held rallies across the country during the subsequent campaign period.{{sfn|Braquehais|Norris-Trent|2010}} The rallies attracted tens of thousands, shouting enthusiastically for Kagame, although reporters for ''[[The New York Times]]'' interviewed a number of Rwandans who said that they were "not free to vote against him and that government officials down to the village level had put enormous pressure on them to register to vote; contribute some of their meager earnings to Mr. Kagame’s campaign; and attend rallies".{{sfn|Gettleman|Kron|2010}}

The election went ahead in August 2010 without Ingabire and two other banned candidates, Kagame facing three opponents described by Human Rights Watch as "broadly supportive of the RPF".{{sfn|Human Rights Watch (II)|2010}} Kagame went on to receive {{Percentage|9308|10000|2|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}} of the vote in the election. Opposition and human rights groups said that the election was tainted by repression, murder, and lack of credible competition. Kagame responded by saying "I see no problems, but there are some people who choose to see problems where there are not."{{sfn|Al Jazeera (II)|2010}}

====Constitutional referendum, 2015====
{{main|2015 Rwandan constitutional referendum}}
As Kagame's second term progressed, he began to hint that he might seek to rewrite the term-limit clause of the Rwandan constitution, to allow him to run for a third term in the 2017 elections.{{sfn|Smith|2014}} Earlier in his presidency he had ruled it out,{{sfn|Smith|2014}} but in a 2014 speech at [[Tufts University]] in the United States, Kagame said that he did not know when he would leave office, and that it was up to the Rwandan people to decide.{{sfn|Smith|2014}} He told delegates "...let's wait and see what happens as we go. Whatever will happen, we'll have an explanation."{{sfn|Smith|2014}} The following year a protest occurred outside [[Parliament of Rwanda|parliament]],{{sfn|Laing|2015}} and a petition signed by 3.7&nbsp;million people—more than half of the electorate—was presented to lawmakers asking for Kagame to be allowed to stay in office.{{sfn|Agence France-Presse|2015}} The parliament responded by passing an amendment to the constitution in November 2015, with both the [[Chamber of Deputies of Rwanda|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of Rwanda|Senate]] voting unanimously in favour.{{sfn|Al Jazeera (IV)|2015}} The motion passed kept the two-term limit in place, and also reduced the length of terms from 7 years to 5 years, but it made an explicit exception for Kagame, who would be permitted to run for a third 7-year term followed by two further 5-year terms, if he so desired.{{sfn|Al Jazeera (IV)|2015}} After the amendment was passed in parliament, a referendum was required for it to come into effect.{{sfn|Al Jazeera (IV)|2015}}

The referendum took place on 18 December 2015, with Rwandans overseas voting on 17 December.{{sfn|BBC News (XVIII)|2015}} The amendment was approved by the electorate, with 6.16&nbsp;million voters saying yes, approximately {{percentage|98|100|0|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}} of the votes.{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} The electoral commission stated that the vote had been peaceful and orderly.{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} The [[Democratic Green Party of Rwanda|Democratic Green Party]], the most prominent domestic group opposing the change, protested that it had not been permitted to campaign openly against the amendment.{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} Human Rights Watch executive director [[Ken Roth]] announced on [[Twitter]] that he did not believe the election to be free and fair, saying there was "no suspense in Rwanda referendum when so many dissidents silenced, civil society stifled".{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} The amendment itself was criticised by the [[European Union]] and also the United States, which released a statement saying that Kagame should respect the previous term limits and "foster a new generation of leaders in Rwanda".{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}} Kagame responded that it was not his own decision to seek a third term, but that the parliament and the people had demanded it.{{sfn|McVeigh|2015}}

====Presidential election, 2017====
{{main|2017 Rwandan presidential election}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Paul Kagame (2018-06-13) 02.jpg|thumb|Kagame with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] in June 2018]]
In accordance with the constitutional change, a presidential election was held in August 2017.{{sfn|Burke|2017}} The highest-profile opposition figure for the 2017 election was local businesswoman [[Diane Rwigara]]. Although she acknowledged that "much has improved under Kagame", Rwigara was also critical of Kagame's government, saying that "people disappear, others get killed in unexplained circumstances and nobody speaks about this because of fear".{{sfn|Sauuna|2017}} Like Ingabire in 2010, Rwigara was barred from running in the election.{{sfn|Maclean|2018}} Kagame was endorsed as the RPF's candidate for the election in mid-June,<ref>{{Cite web |title=RPF-Inkotanyi nominates Kagame for President |last=Kwibuka |first=Eugène |work=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |date=18 June 2017 |access-date=18 August 2021 |url= https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/214465}}</ref> and began his re-election campaign in mid-July with a rally in [[Ruhango]].{{sfn|Sevenzo|2017}}

After three weeks of campaigning, concluding with a large rally in [[Gasabo District]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Photos & Video: I will be your shock absorber, Kagame says at final rally |last=Kwibuka |first=Eugène |work=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |date=3 August 2017 |access-date=18 August 2021 |url= https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/217295}}</ref> the election went ahead between Kagame and two opposition candidates.<ref name="ktpr_Rwan">{{Cite web |title=Rwanda Election 2017 Results |work=KT Press |date=3 August 2017 |access-date=18 August 2021 |url= https://www.ktpress.rw/presidential-votes-2017-results/}}</ref> Kagame was re-elected for a third term with {{Percentage|9879|10000|1|%=&nbsp;per&nbsp;cent}} of the vote, his highest percentage to date. He was sworn in for another seven-year term on 18 August.{{sfn|Tumwebaze|2017}} As with his previous victories, independent monitors and human rights organisations cited irregularities and intimidation in the conduct of the election.{{sfn|Department of State (IV)|2018}} Cheeseman and Klaas said in their book that he had "not even bothered to try and manipulate the election in the clever ways" he had used in previous campaigns.{{sfn|Cheeseman|Klaas|2018|p=218}}

===Domestic policy===
====Vision 2020 and Vision 2050====
{{main|Vision 2020 (Rwanda)}}
In the late 1990s, Kagame began actively planning methods to achieve national development. He launched a national consultation process{{sfn|MINECOFIN (I)}} and also sought the advice of experts from emerging nations including China, Singapore and [[Thailand]].{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=226–227}} Following these consultations, and shortly after assuming the presidency, Kagame launched an ambitious programme of national development called [[Vision 2020 (Rwanda)|Vision 2020]].{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=226–227}} The major purposes of the programme were to unite the Rwandan people and to transform Rwanda from a highly impoverished into a [[middle income country]].{{sfn|MINECOFIN (I)}} The programme consists of a list of goals which the government aimed to achieve before the year 2020.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=226–227}} These include reconstruction, infrastructure and transport improvements, good governance, improving agriculture production, private sector development, and health and education improvements.{{sfn|MINECOFIN (I)}}

In 2011, the [[Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Rwanda)|Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN)]] issued a report indicating the progress of the Vision 2020 goals.{{sfn|MINECOFIN (II)|2011|p=2}} The report examined the stated goals of the programme and rated each one with a status of "on-track", "on-watch" or "off-track". Of 44 goals, it found that {{percentage|66|100}} were on-track, {{percentage|11|100}} were on-watch, and {{percentage|22|100}} were off-track.{{sfn|MINECOFIN (II)|2011|p=2}} The major areas identified as off-track were population, poverty and the environment.{{sfn|MINECOFIN (II)|2011|p=2}} By 2012, MINECOFIN's review found that 26% of Vision 2020's original indicators had already been achieved.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Republic of Rwanda|date=2012|title=Vision 2020 (Revised 2012)|url=https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/sites/default/files/downloads/policy-database/RWANDA%29%20Vision%202020%20%28Revised%202012%29.pdf|journal=Republic of Rwanda}}</ref> While also highlighting key areas for improvement, the review made several upward revisions, including revising the GDP per capita target from $900 to $1,240.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nimusima|first=Pereez|display-authors=etal|date=2018|title=An Evaluation of Rwanda's Vision 2020 Achievements|url=https://ju.se/download/18.243bd3a4161b08d5c5817099/1520578293273/EARP-EF%202018-17%20Nimusima.pdf|journal=East Africa Research Papers in Economics and Finance|volume=2018|issue=17 }}</ref> In the same year, an independent review of the strategy carried out by academics based in Belgium rated progress as "quite encouraging", mentioning development in the education and health sectors, as well as Kagame's fostering of a favourable business environment.{{sfn|Ansoms|Rostagno|2012}} The review also raised concerns about the policy of "maximum growth at any cost", suggesting that this was leading to a situation in which the rich prospered while the rural poor saw little benefit.{{sfn|Ansoms|Rostagno|2012}}

Upon completion of the programme in December 2020, Kagame announced [[Vision 2050 (Rwanda)|Vision 2050]], remarking that "Vision 2020 was about what we had to do in order to survive and regain our dignity. But Vision 2050 has to be about the future we choose, because we can, and because we deserve it."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN)|first=Republic of Rwanda|date=December 2020|title=Vision 2050|url=https://www.minecofin.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/Minecofin/Publications/REPORTS/National_Development_Planning_and_Research/Vision_2050/English-Vision_2050_Abridged_version_WEB_Final.pdf|journal=Republic of Rwanda}}</ref> Vision 2050 focuses around the two main pillars of Economic Growth and Prosperity and High Quality of Life and Standards of Life for Rwandans.<ref name=":0" /> Vision 2050 is the programmatic articulation of Kagame's ambition for Rwanda to become an upper-middle income country by 2035, and a [[high-income country]] by 2050.

<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN)|first=Republic of Rwanda|date=December 2020|title=Vision 2050|url=https://www.minecofin.gov.rw/fileadmin/user_upload/Minecofin/Publications/REPORTS/National_Development_Planning_and_Research/Vision_2050/English-Vision_2050_Abridged_version_WEB_Final.pdf|journal=Republic of Rwanda}}</ref>

====Economy====
{{main|Economy of Rwanda}}
[[File:Kigali2018Cropped.jpg|thumb|Luxurious Kigali under Kagame]]
Rwanda's economy has grown rapidly under Kagame's presidency, with per-capita gross domestic product ([[purchasing power parity]]) estimated at [[Geary-Khamis dollar|$]]2,214 in 2020, compared with $631 in 2000.{{sfn|World Bank (V)|2020}} Annual growth between 2000 and 2020 averaged {{percentage|7.221714286|100}} per year.{{efn|Average of 8.371 (2000), 8.485 (2001), 13.192 (2002), 2.202 (2003), 7.448 (2004), 9.378 (2005), 9.227 (2006), 7.633 (2007), 11.161 (2008), 6.248 (2009), 7.335 (2010), 7.958 (2011), 8.642 (2012), 4.72 (2013), 6.167 (2014), 8.857 (2015), 5.971 (2016), 3.976 (2017), 8.579 (2018), 9.461 (2019), -3.355 (2020).{{sfn|World Bank (VI)|2020}}}} Kagame's economic policy is based on [[Economic liberalism|liberalising]] the economy, reducing [[red tape]] for businesses,{{sfn|Murdock|2010}} and transforming the country from an agricultural to a [[knowledge-based economy]].{{sfn|Kanyesigye|2012}} Kagame has stated that he believes Rwanda can emulate the [[Economy of Singapore|economic development of Singapore]] since 1960.{{sfn|Musoni|2013}} Kagame, as set out in the national Vision 2050 Policy, believes that Rwanda can become an upper-middle income country by 2035, and a high-income country by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vision 2020 – 2050 – Rwanda Playbook|url=http://hgs.rgb.rw/vision-2020-2050|access-date=2021-12-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

Kagame's economic policy has been praised by many foreign donors and investors, including [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Starbucks]] chairman [[Howard Schultz]].{{sfn|Grant|2010}}{{sfn|Adams|2009}} The country is also recognized internationally for its effective institutions and low levels of corruption.{{sfn|Thomson|2011|p=441}}

Rwanda has also illegally exploited Congolese minerals, which is an important aspect of the success of Rwanda's economy.{{sfn|Grant|2010}}{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|pp=164–165}} [[Political economy]] researcher Stefaan Marysse estimated that in 1999, 6.1% of Rwanda's GDP came from illegal resource extraction in the DRC.{{sfn|Cassimon ''et al.''|2013|p=54}} In 2013, foreign aid made up over 20 percent of GDP and nearly half of the budget.{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|p=164}} Economic growth has disproportionally accrued to elites in the capital while rural areas lag behind.{{sfn|Thomson|2011|p=451}} Although the government officially has a policy of [[privatization]], in practice it has increased state control of the economy using corporations with strong ties to the state and the ruling party.{{sfn|Reyntjens|2013|p=165}}

Rwanda is a country of few natural resources,{{sfn|Department of State (I)|2012}} and the economy is heavily dependent on [[subsistence agriculture]], with an estimated {{Percentage|75.3|100|0}} of the working population engaged in farming. Under Kagame's presidency, the [[service sector]] has grown strongly. It makes up approximately half of the country's GDP and is the second largest employer after agriculture.<ref name=":1" /> Key tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real estate, business services, and public administration, including education and health.{{sfn|Nantaba|2010}} [[Information and communications technology]] (ICT) is a Vision 2020 priority, with a goal of transforming Rwanda into an ICT hub for Africa.{{sfn|Kanyesigye|2012}} To this end, the government has completed a {{convert|2300|km|mi}} [[fibre optic|fibre-optic]] telecommunications network, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic commerce.{{sfn|Reuters (III)|2011}} [[Tourism in Rwanda|Tourism]] is one of the fastest-growing economic resources and became the country's leading [[Foreign-exchange reserves|foreign exchange]] earner in 2011.{{sfn|Birakwate|2012}}

Rwanda ranks highly in several categories of the World Bank's [[ease of doing business index]]. In 2005, after the country was ranked 158th on the Ease of Doing Business Index, Kagame set up a special unit to analyze the economy and provide solutions to easing business.{{sfn|Topping|2014}} As a result, the country topped the list of reformers in 2009.{{sfn|Murdock|2010}} In 2012, the country's overall ease of doing business index ranking was 52nd out of 185 countries worldwide, and third out of 46 in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].{{sfn|World Bank (IV)|2012}} It was eighth on the 2012 rankings for ease of starting a business;{{sfn|World Bank (III)|2012}} the [[Rwanda Development Board]] asserts that a business can be authorised and registered in 24 hours.{{sfn|Murdock|2010}} The business environment and economy also benefit from relatively low corruption in the country; in 2010, [[Transparency International]] ranked Rwanda as the eighth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and sixty-sixth cleanest out of 178 in the world.{{sfn|Transparency International|2010}}

====Education and health====
{{further|COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda}}
Kagame has made education for [[youth in Rwanda]] a high priority for his administration, allocating {{percentage|17|100}} of the annual budget to the sector.{{sfn|World Review|2013}} The Rwandan government provides free education in state-run schools for twelve years: six years in primary and six in secondary school.{{sfn|UNDP|2012}} The final three years of free education were introduced in 2012 following a pledge by Kagame during his 2010 re-election campaign.{{sfn|Rwirahira|2012}} Kagame credits his government with improvements in the tertiary education sector; the number of universities has risen from 1 in 1994 to 29 in 2010,{{sfn|Kagame|2011}} and the tertiary [[gross enrollment ratio]] increased from {{Percentage|4|100|0}} in 2008 to {{Percentage|7|100|0}} in 2011.{{sfn|World Bank (I)}} From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English;{{sfn|McGreal|2009}} since 2009, due to the country's increasing ties with the [[East African Community]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], English has been the sole language of instruction in public schools from primary school grade 4 onward.{{sfn|VSO|2012|p=3}} The country's [[literacy]] rate, defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write, was {{Percentage|71|100|0}} in 2009, up from 58% in 1991 and 38% in 1978.{{sfn|World Bank (II)}}

Rwanda's health profile is dominated by communicable diseases,{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|p=5}} including [[malaria]], [[pneumonia]], and [[HIV/AIDS]]. Prevalence and mortality rates have sharply declined in the past decade{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|pp=4–7}} but the short supply or unavailability of certain medicines continues to challenge disease management.{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|p=10}} Kagame's government is seeking to improve this situation as one of the Vision 2020 priorities. It has increased funding, with the health budget up from {{Percentage|32|1000|1}} of national expenditure in 1996 to {{Percentage|97|1000|1}} in 2008.{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|p=10}} It also set up training institutes, including the [[Kigali Health Institute]] (KHI),{{sfn|KHI|2012}} and in 2008 effected laws making health insurance mandatory for all individuals;{{sfn|WHO (II)|2008}} by 2010, over {{Percentage|90|100|0}} of the population was covered.{{sfn|McNeil|2010}} These policies have contributed to a steady increase in quality of healthcare and improvement in key indicators during Kagame's presidency. In 2010, 91 children died before their fifth birthday for every 1000 live births, down from 163 under five deaths for every 1000 live births in 1990.{{sfn|UNICEF|2012}} Prevalence of some diseases is declining, including the elimination of maternal and neonatal [[tetanus]]{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|p=4}} and a sharp reduction in malaria [[morbidity]], [[mortality rate]], and specific [[lethality]].{{sfn|WHO (I)|2009|p=5}} In response to shortages in qualified medical personnel, in 2011 the Rwandan government launched an eight-year US$151.8&nbsp;million initiative to train medical professionals.{{sfn|Rwanda Human Resources for Health Program|2011}}

Kagame has garnered praise for the country's response to the ongoing global [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Despite the country having a relatively underdeveloped health care system, Rwanda has one of the lowest infection and mortality rates in the world, and is seen as a success story. Rwanda is currently the only nation in Africa whose residents are permitted to enter the [[Schengen Area]] for non essential travel.{{sfn|Beaubien|2020}} Rwanda's response has not been without its criticisms, in particular the curbing of [[civil liberties]] and [[individualism|individual freedoms]].{{sfn|Bariyo|2020}} By April 2022. Rwanda was one of the few countries in Africa to have fully vaccinated over 60% of its population against COVID-19.<ref>{{cite web |title=Covid-19: Rwanda has vaccinated over 60% of its population |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/04/08/rwanda-has-vaccinated-over-60-of-its-population/ |website=Africanews |access-date=30 April 2022 |date=9 April 2022}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===

====Democratic Republic of the Congo====
{{Main|Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations}}
[[File:M23 in Goma.PNG|thumb|Anti-government rebels from the [[March 23 Movement|March 23 (M23) Movement]], widely considered to have been supported by Rwanda, during their capture of the provincial capital at [[Goma]] in [[North Kivu]] in November 2012. ]]
The Second Congo War, which began in 1998, was still raging when Kagame assumed the presidency in 2000. [[Namibia]], Angola, Zimbabwe, and [[Chad]] had committed troops to the Congolese government side,{{sfn|BBC News (II)}} while Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi were supporting rebel groups.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=193–198}} The rebel group Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) had split in 1999 into two factions: the [[Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma|RCD-Goma]], supported by Rwanda, and the [[RCD-Kisangani]], which was allied to Uganda.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} Uganda also supported the [[Movement for the Liberation of the Congo]] (MLC), a rebel group from the north.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} All these rebel groups were at war with Kabila's government in Kinshasa, but were also increasingly hostile to each other.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} Various peace meetings had been held, culminating in the July 1999 [[Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement]] which was signed by Kabila, Kagame and all the other foreign governments.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=224–225}} The rebel groups were not party to the agreement, and fighting continued.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=224–225}} The RPA continued to be heavily involved in the Congo War during 2000, fighting battles against the Ugandan army in Kisangani and against Kabila's army in [[Kasai region|Kasai]] and [[Katanga Province|Katanga]].{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=225, 234}}

In January 2001, Kabila was assassinated inside his palace.{{sfn|Sherwell|Long|2001}} His son [[Joseph Kabila|Joseph]] was appointed president and immediately began asserting his authority by dismissing his father's cabinet and senior army commanders,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=258, 263}} assembling a new government, and engaging with the international community.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=257}} The new government provided impetus for renewed peace negotiations, and in July 2002 a peace agreement was reached between Rwanda, Congo, and the other major participants, in which all foreign troops would withdraw and RCD-Goma would enter a power-sharing transitional government with Joseph Kabila as interim president until elections could be held.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=272}} Kagame's government announced at the end of 2002 that all uniformed Rwandan troops had left Congolese territory, but this was contradicted by a 2003 report by UN panel of experts. According to this report, the Rwandan army contained a dedicated "Congo desk" which used the armed forces for large-scale illegal appropriation of Congolese resources.{{sfn|Armbruster|2003}}{{sfn|Human Rights Watch (I)|2005}}
[[File:The heads of delegations attending the Russia-Africa Summit pose for photographs (2019-10-24).jpg|thumb|Kagame, DRC president [[Félix Tshisekedi]] and other African leaders at the [[Russia–Africa Summit 2019|Russia–Africa Summit]] in Sochi on 24 October 2019]]
Despite the agreement and subsequent ceasefire, relations between Kagame and the Congolese government remained tense.{{sfn|Armbruster|2003}} Kagame blamed the DRC for failing to suppress the [[Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda]] (FDLR), Rwandan Hutu rebels operating in North and South Kivu provinces.{{sfn|Al Jazeera (III)|2007}} Kabila accused Rwanda of using the Hutu as a "pretext for maintaining its control and influence in the area".{{sfn|Voice of America|2009}} There has been [[Kivu conflict|ongoing conflict]] in Congo's eastern provinces since 2004, during which Kagame has backed two major insurgencies. This included a major rebellion from 2005 to 2009, led by Congolese Tutsi [[Laurent Nkunda]], as well as the [[M23 rebellion|a rebellion]] carried out by the [[March 23 Movement]] (M23) under leader [[Bosco Ntaganda]], beginning in 2012.{{sfn|International Crisis Group|2020}}{{sfn|BBC News (XVII)|2014}} A leaked United Nations report in 2012 cited Kagame's defence minister James Kabarebe as being effectively the commander of the M23.{{sfn|BBC News (XIV)|2012}} Relations have improved since 2016, as Kagame held a bilateral meeting with Kabila in Gisenyi.{{sfn|Piel|Tilouine|2016}} When [[Félix Tshisekedi]] was elected DRC president in 2019, Kagame – the AU chairman at the time – unsuccessfully called for an AU investigation into the poll. Despite this, he has developed a close relationship with Tshisekedi since the latter's election, with summits in both Kinshasa and Kigali. As of 2020, Kagame still faces accusations that Rwanda's troops are active within the Kivu provinces. Congolese officials such as [[Walikale Territory|Walikale]] member of parliament [[Juvénal Munubo]], as well as civilians, have reported sighting RDF soldiers in the DRC, but Kagame consistently denies these claims.{{sfn|Gras|2020}}

====Uganda and the East African Community====
{{Further-text|[[Kenya–Rwanda relations]], [[Rwanda–Tanzania relations]]|[[East African Community]]}}[[File:East African Community heads of state.jpg|thumb|Kagame with the other four [[East African Community]] Heads of States in April 2009|alt=Five presidents seated on chairs in an outdoor scene with sunshine and a red carpet: Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, Mwai Kibaki of Kenya, Paul Kagame of Rwanda, Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania and Pierre Nkurunziza of Burundi]]
Kagame spent most of his childhood and young adult years living in Uganda, and has a personal relationship with President Yoweri Museveni dating back to the late 1970s;{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=20}} they fought together in the Ugandan Bush War, and Kagame was appointed head of military intelligence in Museveni's national army following the NRA victory in 1986.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=50–51}} When the RPF soldiers abandoned the Ugandan army and invaded Rwanda in 1990, Museveni did not explicitly support them, but according to Prunier it is likely that he had prior knowledge of the plan.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=97–98}} Museveni also allowed the RPF safe passage through Ugandan territory to the Virunga mountains after their early defeats in the war,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=114–115}} and revealed in a 1998 heads of state meeting that Uganda had helped the RPF materially during the [[Rwandan Civil War]].{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=183}} Following the RPF victory, the two countries enjoyed a close political and trade relationship.{{sfn|Simpson (II)|2000}}

Rwanda and Uganda were allies during the First Congo War against Zaire, with both countries being instrumental in the setting up of the AFDL and committing troops to the war.{{sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=48}} The two nations joined forces again at the beginning of the Second Congo War, but relations soured in late 1998 as Museveni and Kagame had very different priorities in fighting the war.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=220}} In early 1999, the RCD rebel group split into two, with Rwanda and Uganda supporting opposing factions,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=220}} and in August the Rwandan and Ugandan armies battled each other with heavy artillery in the Congolese city of Kisangani.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=225}} The two sides [[Six Day War (Kisangani)|fought again in Kisangani]] in May and June 2000, causing the deaths of 120 soldiers and around 640 Congolese civilians.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=242}} Relations slowly thawed in the 2000s, and by 2011 the two countries enjoyed a close friendship once more.{{sfn|Heuler|2011}} Further conflict between Kagame and Museveni arose in early 2019, as the two countries conflicted over trade and regional politics.{{sfn|Norbrook|Kantai|Smith|2019}} Kagame accused Museveni's government of supporting the FDLR and harassing Rwandan nationals in Uganda, leading Rwanda to set up a blockade of trucks at the border.{{sfn|Mohamed (II)|2019}} Museveni accused Rwanda of sending troops into its territory, including an incident in [[Rukiga district]] in which a Ugandan citizen was killed.{{sfn|Norbrook|Kantai|Smith|2019}} The Rwanda–Uganda border reopened on 31 January 2022.{{sfn|Mutangana |2022}}{{sfn|Reyntjens|2022}}

In 2007, Rwanda joined the East African Community, an intergovernmental organisation for the East Africa region comprising Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda. The country's accession required the signing of various agreements with the other members, including a defence intelligence sharing pact, a [[customs union]], and measures to combat drug trafficking.{{sfn|Osike|2007}} The countries of the Community established a [[common market]] in 2011, and plan further integration, including moves toward political federation.{{sfn|East African Community (I)}}{{sfn|Lavelle|2008}} The community has also set up an [[East African Monetary Institute]], which aims to introduce a single currency by 2024.{{sfn|East African Community (II)|2020}}

====France====
{{Main|France–Rwanda relations}}
France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana during his years in power, as part of its ''[[Françafrique]]'' policy.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=89}} When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil War in 1990, Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France, [[François Mitterrand]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=100–101}} France sent 600 paratroopers, who effectively ran the government's response to the invasion and were instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF had gained in the first days of the war.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=78}} France maintained this military presence throughout the war, engaging Kagame's RPF forces again in February 1993 during the offensive that doubled RPF territory.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=62}} In the later stages of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, France launched ''Opération Turquoise'', a United Nations mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for protection of [[displaced person]]s, [[refugee]]s, and civilians in danger; many Rwandans interpreted it as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide.{{sfn|Fassbender|2011|p=27}} The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled Kagame's advance in southwestern Rwanda.{{sfn|McGreal|2007}}

France continued to shun the new RPF government following the end of the genocide and the withdrawal of ''Opération Turquoise''.{{sfn|French|1994}} Diplomatic relations were finally reestablished in January 1995, but remained tense as Rwanda accused France of aiding the ''genocidaires'', while France defended its interventions.{{sfn|Smith|1995}}{{sfn|Hranjski|1999}}{{sfn|Australian Associated Press|2004}} In 2006, French judge Jean-Louis Bruguière released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the plane. Bruguière subsequently issued arrest warrants for nine of Kagame's close aides.{{sfn|BBC News (XI)|2006}} Kagame denied the charges and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with France.{{sfn|BBC News (XII)|2006}} Relations began to thaw in 2008,{{sfn|Kwibuka|2008}} and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009.{{sfn|Reuters (II)|2009}} In 2010, [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] became the first French president to visit Rwanda since the genocide, admitting for the first time that France made "grave errors of judgment".{{sfn|Sundaram|2010}} Kagame reciprocated with an official visit to Paris in 2011.{{sfn|BBC News (XIII)|2011}}

====United States, United Kingdom and the Commonwealth====
{{Further-text|[[Bangladesh–Rwanda relations|Bangladesh–Rwanda]], [[India–Rwanda relations|India–Rwanda]], [[Rwanda–South Africa relations|Rwanda–South Africa]], [[Rwanda–United Kingdom relations|Rwanda–United Kingdom]]|[[Rwanda–United States relations]]}}[[File:Paul Kagame with Obamas Cropped.jpg|thumb|Paul Kagame with United States President [[Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] in September 2009|alt=Michelle Obama, Paul Kagame and Barack Obama, standing and smiling in front of a curtain]]
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the President of Rwanda, Mr. Paul Kagame, on the sidelines of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) Summit, in New Delhi on March 11, 2018.jpg|thumb|Kagame with Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in 2018]]
[[File:U.S.- Africa Leaders’ Summit Dinner White House, 14 December 2022 (52565663179).jpg|thumb|Kagame with US President [[Joe Biden]] at the [[United States–Africa Leaders Summit 2022|United States–Africa Leaders Summit]] in 2022]]
Since the end of the Rwandan genocide in 1994, Rwanda has enjoyed a close relationship with the English speaking world, in particular the United States (US) and United Kingdom (UK). The two countries have been highly supportive of the RPF programme of stabilisation and rebuilding, with the UK donating large sums each year in [[budget support]],{{sfn|Smith|2012}} and the US providing military aid{{sfn|Smith|2012}} as well as supporting development projects.{{sfn|ForeignAssistance.gov|2013}} As president, Kagame has been critical of the West's lack of response to the genocide, and the UK and US have responded by admitting guilt over the issue: Bill Clinton, who was President of the United States during the genocide, has described his failure to act against the killings as a "personal failure".{{sfn|Smith|2012}} During the 2000s, Clinton and UK prime minister [[Tony Blair]] praised the country's progress under Kagame, citing it as a model recipient for international development funds, and Clinton referred to Kagame as "one of the greatest leaders of our time".{{sfn|Smith|2012}} Both Clinton and Blair have maintained support for the country beyond the end of their terms of office, Clinton via the [[Clinton Global Initiative]] and Blair through his role as an unpaid advisor to the Rwandan government.{{sfn|Wintour|2008}}

As part of his policy of maintaining close relations with English speaking countries, Kagame sought membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, which was granted in 2009.{{sfn|Pflanz|2009}} Rwanda was only the second country, after [[Mozambique]], to join the Commonwealth having never had colonial links to the [[British Empire]].{{sfn|Pflanz|2009}} Kagame attended the subsequent [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] in Perth, Australia, addressing the Business Forum.{{sfn|Office of the President (II)|2011}} Rwanda also successfully applied for a rotating seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 2012, taking over the presidency of that organisation in April 2013.{{sfn|Munyaneza|2013}}

Kagame's relations with the US and UK came under strain in the early 2010s, following allegations that Rwanda is supporting the M23 rebel movement in Eastern Congo.{{sfn|Smith|2012}} The UK suspended its budgetary aid programme in 2012, freezing a [[Pound Sterling|£]]21&nbsp;million donation.{{sfn|BBC News (XVI)|2012}} Other European nations such as Germany also suspended general budgetary support from 2008 onwards. Payments by these countries were gradually restored from 2013, but took the form of sector budgetary support and support for specific programmes.{{sfn|DEval|2008}} The US also froze some of its military aid programme for Rwanda in 2012, although it stopped short of suspending aid altogether.{{sfn|McGreal|2012}} By 2020, the US remained supportive of Kagame's government and was Rwanda's largest bilateral donor.{{sfn|Department of State (V)|2020}}{{sfn|USAID|2020}}

====China and moves towards self-sufficiency====
{{Main|China–Rwanda relations}}
China has been investing in Rwandan infrastructure since 1971, with early projects including hospitals in [[Kibungo]] and [[Masaka (Rwanda)|Masaka]].{{sfn|Mizero|2012|p=1}} Under Kagame's presidency, trade between the two countries has grown rapidly. The volume of trade increased five-fold between 2005 and 2009,{{sfn|Musoni|2011}} and it doubled again in the following three years, being worth US$160&nbsp;million in 2012.{{sfn|Gasore|2013}} Projects completed include the renovation of the Kigali road network, funded using a Chinese government loan and undertaken by [[Road and Bridge Construction|China Road and Bridge Corporation]];{{sfn|China Road and Bridge Corporation|2007}} the [[Kigali City Tower]], which was built by [[China Civil Engineering Construction]];{{sfn|Asiimwe|2010}} and a pay television service operated by [[Star Media]].{{sfn|Butera|2011}}

Kagame has been vocal in his praise of China and its model for relations with Africa, saying in a 2009 interview that "the Chinese bring what Africa needs: investment and money for governments and companies".{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} This is in contrast to Western countries, whom Kagame accuses of focussing too heavily on giving aid to the continent rather than building a trading relationship; he also believes that they keep African products out of the world marketplace by the use of high [[tariff]]s.{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} China does not openly involve itself in the domestic affairs of the countries with which it trades,{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} hence has not followed the West in criticising Kagame's alleged involvement in the war in the Congo.

Kagame's ultimate goal in international relations is to shift Rwanda from a country dependent on donor aid and loans towards self-sufficiency, trading with other countries on an equal footing. In a 2009 article, Kagame wrote that "the primary purpose of aid should ultimately be to work itself out", and should therefore focus on self-sufficiency and building private sector development.{{sfn|Kagame|2009}} Kagame cited an example of donor countries providing free fertilisers to farmers; he believes this to be wrong because it undercuts local fertiliser businesses, preventing them from growing and becoming competitive.{{sfn|Kagame|2009}} In 2012, Kagame launched the [[Agaciro Development Fund]], following proposals made at a national dialogue session in 2011.{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} Agaciro is a solidarity fund whose goal is to provide development finance sourced within Rwanda, supplementing aid already received from overseas.{{sfn|Office of the President (III)|2012}} The fund invites contributions from Rwandan citizens, within the country and in the diaspora, as well as private companies and "friends of Rwanda".{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} The fund will allocate its funds based on consultations with the populace,{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} as well as financing projects contributing to the Vision 2020 programme.{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (II)}}