Master's degree

==Comparable European degrees==
{{See also|Master's degree in Europe}}
In some European countries, a [[Magister (degree)|''magister'']] is a [[undergraduate degree|first degree]] and may be considered equivalent to a modern (standardized) master's degree (''e.g.'', the [[Germany|German]], [[Austria]]n and [[Poland|Polish]] university ''[[Diplom]]/[[Magister (degree)|Magister]]'', or the similar five-year Diploma awarded in several subjects in [[Greece|Greek]],<ref name="Greece1"/> [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and other universities and [[Institute of technology|polytechnics]]).{{clarify|date=July 2016}}

Under the [[Bologna Process]], countries in the [[European Higher Education Area]] (EHEA) are moving to a three-cycle (bachelor's - master's - doctorate) system of degrees. Two-thirds of EHEA countries have standardised on 120 ECTS credits for their second-cycle (master's) degrees, but 90 ECTS credits is the main form in Cyprus, Ireland and Scotland and 60-75 credits in Montenegro, Serbia and Spain.<ref>{{cite report|author=European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice|date=2015|title=The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report|publisher=Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|page=17|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817032305/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|url-status=live}}</ref> The combined length of the first and second cycle varies from "3 + 1" years (240 
ECTS credits), through "3 + 2" or "4 + 1" years (300 ECTS credits), to "4 + 2" years (360 ECTS credits). As of 2015, 31 EHEA countries have integrated programmes that combine the first and second cycle and lead to a second-cycle qualification (e.g. the UK integrated master's degree), particularly in STEM subjects and subjects allied to medicine. These typically have a duration of 300 – 360 ECTS credits (five to six years), with the integrated master's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland being the shortest at 240 ECTS credits (four years).<ref>{{cite report|author=European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice|date=2015|title=The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report|publisher=Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|pages=54–56|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817032305/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Denmark]] there are two forms of master's degree. The Master's Degree or ''candidatus'' is a FQ-EHEA second-cycle qualification worth 120 ECTS credits. These degrees are research-based and offered through universities (e.g. [[University of Copenhagen]] and [[Copenhagen Business School]]). The second form is the Master Degree (no possessive) within the adult [[continuing education]] system, which is worth 60 ECTS credits and is taught part-time.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/DK-QF-report-EN.pdf|title=Verification of compatibility of the Danish National Qualifications Framework for Higher Education with the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area|publisher=The Danish Evaluation Institute|isbn=978-87-7958-556-0|date=November 2009|pages=17–18|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322062455/http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/DK-QF-report-EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The candidatus degree is abbreviated cand. and upon completion of, for instance, an engineering master's degree, a person becomes cand.polyt. (polytechnical). Similar abbreviations, inspired by Latin, apply to a large number of fields, e.g.: sociology (cand.scient.soc), economics (cand.merc., cand.polit. or cand.oecon), law (cand.jur), humanities (cand.mag) etc. Use of a cand. title requires a master's degree. Holders of a cand. degree are also entitled to use M.Sc. or M.A. titles, depending on the field of study. In [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], the title of ''kandidaatti/kandidat'' (abbreviated kand.) equates to a bachelor's degree.<ref name="ukae_qual">{{cite web |title=Qualifications |url=https://english.uka.se/facts-about-higher-education/higher-education-in-sweden/qualifications.html |website=Swedish Higher Education Authority |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106211309/http://english.uka.se/facts-about-higher-education/higher-education-in-sweden/qualifications.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 
* In France, the master's degree (''[[Master's degree (France)|diplôme de master]]'') takes two years and is worth 120 ECTS credits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20190/organisation-licence-master-doctorat.html|title=Organisation licence master doctorat (L.M.D.)|language=fr|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=Ministère de l'Education nationale, de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche|date=30 September 2014|archive-date=9 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609224139/http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20190/organisation-licence-master-doctorat.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The two years are often called the master 1 (M1) and master 2 (M2), following the Bologna Process. Depending on the goal of the student (a doctorate or a professional career) the master can also be called a "Master Recherche" (research master) or a "Master Professionnel" (professional master), each with different requirements.<br />A French ''[[diplôme d'ingénieur]]'' (postgraduate degree in engineering of ''[[grandes écoles]]'') is also the equivalent of a master's degree, provided the diploma is recognised by the [[Commission des titres d'ingénieur]], as are qualifications recognised at Level 7 of the ''[[répertoire national des certifications professionnelles]]'' (national register of professional certificates).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cife.eu/en/3/degree-recognition_64-1|title=Degree & recognition|publisher=Centre International de Formation Europëenne|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=21 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821140840/http://www.cife.eu/en/3/degree-recognition_64-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/grand-public/qualificationsFramework|title=The French National Qualifications Framework|publisher=Commission nationale de la certification professionnelle|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625033113/http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/grand-public/qualificationsFramework|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Italy]] the master's degree is equivalent to the two-year ''[[Laurea|Laurea magistrale]]'', which can be earned after a ''[[Laurea]]'' (a three-year undergraduate degree, equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In particular fields, namely law, pharmacy and medicine, this distinction is not made. University courses are therefore single and last five to six years, after which the master's degree is awarded (in this case referred to as ''[[Laurea|Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico]]''). The old ''Laurea'' degree (Vecchio Ordinamento, Old Regulations), which was the only awarded in Italy before the [[Bologna process]], is equivalent<ref>{{cite web|url=http://attiministeriali.miur.it/anno-2009/luglio/di-09072009.aspx|title=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca|publisher=Attiministeriali.muir.it|access-date=28 November 2014|archive-date=12 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212093003/http://attiministeriali.miur.it/anno-2009/luglio/di-09072009.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> to the current Laurea Magistrale.
* In the [[Netherlands]] the titles ''ingenieur'' (ir.), ''meester'' (mr.) and ''[[doctorandus]]'' (drs.) may be rendered, if obtained in the Netherlands from a university, after the application of the Bologna process, as: MSc instead of ir., LLM instead of mr. and MA or MSc instead of drs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005682/Hoofdstuk7/Titel1/Paragraaf4/Artikel719a/geldigheidsdatum_21-01-2013|title=wetten.nl - Wet- en regelgeving - Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek - BWBR0005682|publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl|access-date=13 October 2014|archive-date=18 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018023106/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005682/Hoofdstuk7/Titel1/Paragraaf4/Artikel719a/geldigheidsdatum_21-01-2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This is because a single program that led to these degree was in effect before 2002, which comprised the same course load as the bachelor and master programs put together. Those who had already started the program could, upon completing it, bear the appropriate title (MSc, LLM or MA), but alternatively still use the old-style title (ir., mr. or drs.), corresponding to their field of study. Since these graduates do not have a separate bachelor's degree (which is – in retrospect – incorporated into the program), the master's degree is their first academic degree. Bearers of foreign master's degree can use the titles ir., mr. and drs. only after obtaining a permission to bear such titles from the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs. Those who received their mr., ir. or drs. title after the application of the Bologna process have the option of signing as '''A. Jansen, MA''' or '''A. Jansen, MSc''', depending on the field in which the degree was obtained, since the ir., mr. and drs. titles are similar to a master's degree, and the shortcut MA or MSc. may officially be used in order to render such title as an international title.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nvao.net/nl/faq|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512035858/http://www.nvao.net/veelgestelde-vragen/nederland/112|url-status=dead|title=Veelgestelde vragen|archivedate=May 12, 2008|website=www.nvao.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minocw.nl/bachelor/355/Titels.html |title=Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap |publisher=Minocw.nl |access-date=28 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210184259/http://www.minocw.nl/bachelor/355/Titels.html |archive-date=10 February 2009 }}</ref><ref name=burgervragen>{{cite web|url=http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|title=Citizens' questions letter from Dutch Department of Education, Culture and Science|publisher=Members.home.nl|access-date=28 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607172828/http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|archive-date=7 June 2011|date=8 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |title=titulatuur: drs. A. Jansen, M.B.A. - Genootschap Onze Taal |author=Kees™ Internetbureau |publisher=Onzetaal.nl |access-date=28 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808024651/http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |archive-date= 8 August 2011 }}</ref>
* In [[Belgium]], the higher education system is governed by the [[Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium|communities]] and have separately implemented the Bologna Process. In [[Flanders]], a master's degree can be obtained when completing a two-year study at university (120 ECTS), although there also exist some master's studies which only require 1 year of education (60 ECTS). This discrepancy has various reasons, but the main cause is the transition from the pre-Bologna Process degrees. Degrees like industrial engineering were previously not obtained through university and only took one year, but got transferred to universities, hence why the master's degree for industrial engineering only takes one year at university currently. Similar situations arose for other one-year degrees obtained before 2013 and are therefore now converted to master's degrees through a special certificate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welke waarde heeft mijn oude diploma in de huidige bachelor-masterstructuur? |trans-title=Value of old type degrees in the higher education system for the Flemish community |url=https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/en/node/119 |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=Education Flanders |language=Dutch}}</ref> Other master's degrees, such as the degrees from the faculty of Arts and Literature are historically only one year, just like they were before the Bologna Process ratification. Master's degrees for medicine take 3 years to be completed. The situation for the [[French Community of Belgium]] is similar in many ways, but has implemented it differently.
<!-- To be sure, the Dutch law (Higher Education and Scientific Research Act, article 7.10, section 1) states: "Depending on the field in which the final examination of a Bachelor or Master education has been taken with good results, «of Arts» or «of Science» is added to the degree that has been awarded." The entire first section of the article in the original Dutch reads as follows: Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek, Artikel 7.10a. Verlening van graden. 1. Het instellingsbestuur verleent de graad Bachelor en de graad Master aan degene die met goed gevolg het afsluitend examen van een bacheloropleiding in het wetenschappelijk onderwijs onderscheidenlijk het afsluitend examen van een masteropleiding in het wetenschappelijk onderwijs heeft afgelegd. Afhankelijk van het vakgebied waarin het met goed gevolg afgelegde afsluitend examen van een bacheloropleiding onderscheidenlijk het met goed gevolg afgelegde examen van een masteropleiding is afgelegd, wordt aan de verleende graad toegevoegd «of Arts» dan wel «of Science». Bij ministeriële regeling kan voor een opleiding of een groep van opleidingen met betrekking tot een in dit lid bedoelde graad een andere toevoeging dan die, bedoeld in de tweede volzin, worden vastgesteld."

This is especially useful when one has a combination of pre-Bologna and post-Bologna titles and degrees, since a combination of one or more recognized Dutch titles with one or more international degrees is not allowed. According to the Dutch Department of Education, "The termination 'of Arts' or the termination 'of Science' are legally protected and may only be used by those who have got a degree therein after the introduction of the Bachelor/Master curricula (2002)."<ref name=burgervragen/> Those having vocational master's degree may sign with an M followed by the field of their study, e.g. MSW for Master of Social Work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wiki.lsrs.ro/index.php/Infostud/Supliment_la_o_diploma_olandeza|title=University of Amsterdam. Diploma Supplement, 2007|publisher=Lsrs.ro|access-date=13 October 2014}}</ref> Since 2009, those having vocational masters could also use M.A.A. or M.A.Sc.-->
* In [[Switzerland]], the old [[Licentiate (degree)|Licence]] or Diplom (4 to 5 years in duration) is considered equivalent to the master's degree.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissuniversities.ch/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928235704/http://www.crus.ch/information-programmes/bologne-ects/equivalence.html?L=1|url-status=dead|title=Home - swissuniversities|archivedate=September 28, 2011|website=www.swissuniversities.ch}}</ref>
* In [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]], during the pre-Bologna process education, all [[academic degree]]s were awarded after a minimum of four years of university studies and a successful defence of a written thesis and are considered equivalent to the master's degree.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=February 2015}} After the completion of that first cycle of the pre-Bologna higher education, the students obtained [[professional degree]]s with the titles of Professor (abbreviation "prof.") for educational studies, Engineer (abbreviation "ing.") for technical studies, or [[Licentiate (degree)|Licensed]] professional of their field of expertise (abbreviation "dipl." with a reference to the profession) for other studies. The title of [[Master of Science|Magister Scientiae]] (abbreviation "mr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate university programme (and therefore qualified for a doctorate programme), while the title of [[Doctor of Science|Scientiae Doctor]] (abbreviation "dr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate [[Doctorate|doctoral]] programme. Slovenia is a full member of the Bologna Process since 1999<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ehea.info/cid101600/slovenia.html|title=European higher education area - Slovenia|publisher=ehea.info|access-date=23 November 2017|archive-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022084920/http://www.ehea.info/cid101600/slovenia.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Croatia since 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ehea.info/pid34250-cid101113/croatia.html|title=European higher education area - Croatia|publisher=ehea.info|access-date=23 November 2017|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116180840/http://www.ehea.info/pid34250-cid101113/croatia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Baltic countries]] there is a two-year education program that offers a chance to gain a master's degree in interdisciplinary issues. The system offers an education in different areas, such as humanities, environmental and social issues, whilst paying specific consideration to the Baltic Sea area. It is a joint-degree program, which is part of a team effort with four universities. There is for example the [[University of Tartu]] in Estonia, [[Vytautas Magnus University]] in Lithuania and the [[University of Latvia]]. The educational programmes allow students to be mobile within the system, for example one semester may be taken in a confederate school without paying additional membership or tuition fees. Subsequently, after passing the qualifications provided, people may procure teaching qualifications and continue their scholastic research around doctoral studies, or carry on studying within their career in the private or public sector. Graduates of the program, within the Baltic Sea area are also given the chance to continue onwards with their studies within the postgraduate system if they have studied the social sciences or humanities field.
* In [[Greece]], the ''metaptychiako'' (μεταπτυχιακό) which literally translates as ''post-degree'' (...''programme'' or ''title''), lasts normally from one to, more often, two years, and can be studied after a, at least, four-years undergraduate ''ptychio'', which means ''degree''.<br />Also, the five-year ''diploma'' (δίπλωμα) awarded in all [[Polytechnic (Greece)|Polytechnics]] (schools of engineering) and the [[Athens School of Fine Arts]] is considered equal to a graduate degree plus a master's degree.<ref name="Greece1">{{cite news
| date         = August 1, 1978
| title        = ΦΕΚ 54
| language     = el
| newspaper    = Journal of the Government of the Greek Republic
| volume       = 54
| issue        = Appendix
| location     = Athens, Greece
}}</ref>
* In [[Russia]] master (''магистр'') degree can be obtained after a two-year master course (''магистратура'') which is available after a four-year bachelor or a five-year specialist course. A graduate may choose a master course completely different from his/her previous one. During these two years master students attend specialized lectures in chosen profile, choose a faculty advisor and prepare their master thesis which is eventually defended before certifying commission consisting mostly of professors, leading by the professor from another university.
* In the [[United Kingdom]], first degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are considered equivalent to master's degrees despite, for historical reasons, often having the titles of bachelor's degrees.<ref name=FHEQ/>
* The old [[Spain|Spanish]] degrees of ''Licenciado'' (Licenciate), ''Arquitecto'' (Architect) and ''Ingeniero'' (Engineer) are also equivalent to master's degrees. They were integrated programmes of study that combined first and second cycles and led to a second cycle qualification. The Spanish government issued a royal decree in 2014 establishing the official equivalences between the Spanish pre-Bologna degrees and the [[European Qualifications Framework]] (EQF) levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2014-12098|title=Real Decreto 967/2014|pages=95973–95993 |publisher=Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804053343/http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2014-12098|url-status=live}}</ref> Most (if not all) ''Licenciado'', ''Arquitecto'' and ''Ingeniero'' degrees were placed in level 7 (Master) of the EQF. These programmes have been phased out and replaced with the new Bologna programmes of ''Máster'', to be completed after completion of a programme of ''Grado'' (Bachelor's).