Crucifixion

==== Society and law ====
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| footer = The [[Alexamenos graffito]], a satirical representation of the Christian worship, depicting a man worshiping a crucified donkey (Rome, c AD 85 to 3rd century). It is inscribed ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ (ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟϹ) ΣΕΒΕΤΕ (ϹΕΒΕΤΕ) ΘΕΟΝ, which translates as "Alexamenos respects god". Visible at the museum on the Palatine Hill, Rome, Italy (''left''). A modern-day tracing (''right'').
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Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most painful and humiliating death imaginable.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Robison|first=John C.|date=June 2002|title=Crucifixion in the Roman World: The Use of Nails at the Time of Christ|url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1014&context=studiaantiqua|journal=Studia Antiqua|volume=2}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mercaba.org/FICHAS/upsa/crucifixion.htm|title=Crucifixion in Antiquity: The Evidence|last=Zias|first=Joseph|date=1998|website=www.mercaba.org|access-date=March 10, 2018}}</ref> It was used to punish [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves]], [[Pirate|pirates]], and enemies of the state. It was originally reserved for slaves (hence still called "supplicium servile" by Seneca), and later extended to citizens of the lower classes (''[[Roman Empire#Unequal justice|humiliores]]'').<ref name=":0" /> The victims of crucifixion were stripped naked<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|27:35}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|15:24}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|23:34}}, {{bibleverse||John|19:23–25}}</ref> and put on public display<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":4" /> while they were slowly [[torture]]d to death so that they would serve as a [[Deterrence (legal)|spectacle and an example]].<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9" />

According to Roman law, if a slave killed his or her owner, all of the owner's slaves would be crucified as punishment.<ref name=Barth>{{cite book |last1=Barth |first1=Markus |last2=Blanke |first2=Helmut |title=The Letter to Philemon: A New Translation with Notes and Commentary |date=2000 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-3829-2 |page=16 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6l4jhzIg7oC&pg=PA16 |language=en}}</ref> Both men and women were crucified.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=Strauss |title=The Spartacus War |date=2009 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-5839-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3LowhKACVwC&pg=PA193 |page=193}}</ref><ref>{{cite Josephus |PACEJ = 1 | text=AJ |bookno=18 |chap=3 |sec=4}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Crucifixion in Antiquity: An Inquiry into the Background and Significance of the New Testament Terminology of Crucifixion |last=Samuelsson |first=Gunnar |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-16-152508-7 |pages=7}}</ref> Tacitus writes in his ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' that when [[Lucius Pedanius Secundus]] was murdered by a slave, some in the Senate tried to prevent the mass crucifixion of four hundred of his slaves<ref name="Barth" /> because there were so many women and children, but in the end tradition prevailed and they were all executed.<ref>Tacitus. ''Annals'', Book 14, [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#42|42–45]].</ref> Although not conclusive evidence for female crucifixion by itself, the most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion may depict a crucified woman, whether real or imaginary.{{efn|It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of [[Trajan]] or [[Hadrian]] (late 1st century to early 2nd century AD). An inscription over the person's left shoulder reads "{{lang|grc|Ἀλκίμιλα}}" (Alkimila), a female name. It is not clear, however, whether the inscription was written by the same person who drew the picture, or added by another person later. It is also not known whether the grafitto is intended to depict an actual event, as distinguished from, perhaps, the writer's desire for someone to be crucified, or as a jest. As such, the grafitto does not itself provide conclusive evidence of female crucifixion.<ref name="Cook" />}} Crucifixion was such a gruesome and [[humiliating]] way to die that the subject was somewhat of a taboo in Roman culture, and few crucifixions were specifically documented. One of the only specific female crucifixions that are documented is that of Ida, a [[freedwoman]] (former slave) who was crucified by order of Tiberius.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=Strauss |title=The Spartacus War |date=2009 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-5839-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Josephus|title=Josephus: Essential Writings|date=1990|publisher=Kregel Academic|pages=265}}</ref>